A tremendous amount of energy is used to hold the nucleus together, since the repulsion between the positively charged protons is great. The bonding forces that hold the nucleus together are collectively known as the nucleur forces. When heavy element nuclei are split into smaller nuclei, or light element nuclei combined to make one nucleus, tremendous energies are released. The former is known fission, and the latter, fusion, and they are the driving forces behind stars and nuclear weopons. From Dalton's theory, it was thought that atoms were indivisible particles that made up everything in the world. When Rutherford made his gold foil experiment, however, he found that when high-velocity positive alpha particles bombarded a thing metal foil, while most passed straight through, some were reflected back or deflected. This led him to postulate that most of the atom was empty space, with most of the mass concentrated in one dense region in the centre of the arom. Thus, most of the positive alpha particles passed through the empty space, but some hit the dense core and were reflected back by electric repulsion. He called this the nucleus of the atom. Subsequently, improvements were made on the Rutherford model. The nucleu was theorized to contain both positive and neutral particles.
The interactions in the nucleus, the strong and the weak forces, are the strongest forces in nature. Processes such as fission and fusion release much of this energy, and make possible new energy sources. In fact, fusion is the process by which stars generate light and heat, and thus the source from which all life on earth is derived. Other processes, such as radiation, have medical applications. The Dalton atomic model suspected no nucleus. It assumed that atoms were the fundamental building blocks of nature and no particles exist that are smaller than atoms. However, Rutherford's Gold-foil experiment led him to suspect that atoms had nuclei where most of its mass was located, and that the nucleus was positive. Bombarding Nitrogen with alpha par tides, he noticed that the disintegration of the nucleus produced a positive particle equal to the mass of a ydrogen atom. He called this particle the proton and postulated that they made up the nucleus. But a lot of positive charge concentrated in a small region would cause a lot of repulsion forces. So when Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932, Heisenberg created the proton・neutron model of the nucleus. It also successfully explains iso topes.
The book integrates theoretical chemistry teachings with industrial and laboratory practice, providing a realistic grounding for future practising chemists and engineers.

Preface vii

1. Atomic Concepts Galileo • Newton • Lavoisier • What is an Element? • Dalton • Dalton's Multiple Proportions • Gay-Lussac's Simple Ratios and a Balloon Ride • Avogadro's Hypothesis • Return of the Kinetic Theory • Electrically Produced Elements • Patterns of Elements • Spectrum • Melvill's Bright Lines and Fraunhofer's Dark Lines • Bunsen and Kirchhoff • Floating Magnets • Plum Pudding • Atomic Size • Nicolson: a Clever Idea about a Wrong Model • Bohr Finds the Rydberg Constant without Doing an Experiment • Derivation of the Angular Momentum Quantization from the Correspondence Principle 1

2. Atomic Orbitals Laws of Conservation • Pi-incipal Quantum Number n • Electronic Configuration • The Electrons • The Electronic Arrangements of the First 20 Elements • Atomic Orbitals • Electronic Structures • Filling the Rest of Period 4 • The Electronic Structure of Big s- or p-block Elements • Ionisation Energy • Successive Ionisation Energies • The Atomic Hydrogen Emission Spectrum • The Balmer and Rydberg Equations • Rydberg Equation • Electron Affinity • Comparing Group 6 and Group 7 values • First Electron Affinity and Reactivity • Second Electron Affinity • Atomic And Ionic Radius • Ionic Radius • The Photoelectric Effect • Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle • Schrodinger's Wave Equation 26

3. Atomic Theory Dalton Theory • Ionic and Covalent Bonds • Polar Molecules • VSEPR Model • Valence Bond Theory • Molecular Orbital Theory • Bonds in Chemical Formulas • Atomic Structure and Bonding • Periodic Table • Primaiy Interatomic Bonds • Lewis Structures • Electron Correlations in Solids • Band Structui-e of Electronic • Band Structure of Crystals • Green's Function 70

4. Nucleus Nuclear Energy • Structure of Nucleus • Types of Radioactivity • Decay • Induced Radioactivity • Reaction of Division 100

5. Quantized Atom The Dawn of Quantum Theory • Atomic Spectra • Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom • Wave Particle Duality—Modern Quantum Theoi-y • The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle • Atoms with More than one Electron Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle • Periodic Properties Electron Configurations from the Periodic Table 110

6. Oxidation and Reduction Oxygen Transfer • Oxidation States • The Reasons for the Exceptions 147

7. Nuclear Fuel Cycle D-T Fuel Cycle • Pinch Devices • Safety and the Environment • Effluents dui-ing Normal Operation • Theoretical Power Plant Designs • Protons and Neutrons • Forces • Nuclear Size • Liquid Drop Models • Shell Models and other Quantum Models • Nuclear Structure • Atomic Structure • Spontaneous Fission • Neutro n-Rich Versus Neutron-Poor Nuclides • Binding Energy Calculations • The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay • Dating By Radioactive Decay 169

8. Quantum Number Single Electron in an Atom • Quantum Nature of Light and Matter • Mode Counting • Photo-electric Effect • Spontaneous and Induced Emission • Crucial Geometiies Along the Excited State Reaction Coordinate • Conical Intersections Near Zero Order Crossings • Formulation of a Parameterized Model of Radiationless Transitions • Visualization of Radiationless Transitions Promoted by Vibrational Motion; Vibronic Mixing • Visualization of Radiationless Transitions Promoted by Spin-Orbit Coupling • The Relationship of Rates and Efficiencies of Radiationless Transitions to Molecular Structure • Radiationless Transitions between '"Matching" or Adiabatic Surfaces • Factors that Influence the Rate of Vibrational Relaxation • The Relationship of Internal Conversion to Excited State Structure of *R 198

9. Interaction of Light and Matter The Quantized Atom • The Absorption of Light by Atoms and Molecules • Nuclear Magnetic Resonance—Espin • Infrared Spectroscopy— Evibration • Electron Motion in Molecules—Eelectrons • Pauli Exclusion Principle • Intei-pretations • Relativity and Quantum Mechanics 243

Bibliography 273

Index 277

Alistair Barboz has recently joined as Junior Professor in Chemistry Research Institute (CRI), Sydney.His research areas have centred around Electro-organic synthesis throughout his career. Fluorine electrochemistry, especially electrochemical fluorination has been the major area of current interest to him.He has published 36 original and review papers in the areas of chemistry.

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