In 1965 Gordon Moore observed that silicon transistors were undergoing a continual process of scaling downward, an observation which was later codified as Moore's law. Since his observation transistor minimum feature sizes have decreased from 10 micrometres to the 28-22 nm range in 2011. The field of nanoelectronics aims to enable the continued realization of this law by using new methods and materials to build electronic devices with feature sizes on the nanoscale. The volume of an object decreases as the third power of its linear dimensions, but the surface area only decreases as its second power. This somewhat subtle and unavoidable principle has huge ramifications.
For example the power of a drill is proportional to the volume, while the friction of the drill's bearings and gears is proportional to their surface area. For a normal-sized drill, the power of the device is enough to handily overcome any friction. However, scaling its length down by a factor of 1000, for example, decreases its power by 10003 while reducing the friction by only 10002. Proportionally it has 1000 times less power per unit friction than the original drill. If the original friction-to-power ratio was, say, 1%, that implies the smaller drill will have 10 times as much friction as power. The drill is useless. For this reason, while super-miniature electronic integrated circuits are fully functional, the same technology cannot be used to make working mechanical devices beyond the scales where frictional forces start to exceed the available power. So even though you may see microphotographs of delicately etched silicon gears, such devices are currently little more than curiosities with limited real world applications, for example, in moving mirrors and shutters. Surface tension increases in much the same way, thus magnifying the tendency for very small objects to stick together. This could possibly make any kind of "micro factory" impractical: even if robotic arms and hands could be scaled down, anything they pick up will tend to be impossible to put down. The above being said, molecular evolution has resulted in workingcilia, flagella, muscle fibres and rotary motors in aqueous environments, all on the nanoscale. These machines exploit the increased frictional forces found at the micro or nanoscale. Unlike a paddle or a propeller which depends on normal frictional forces to achieve propulsion, cilia develop motion from the exaggerated drag or laminar forces present at micro and nano dimensions. To build meaningful "machines" at the nanoscale, the relevant forces need to be considered. We are faced with the development and design of intrinsically pertinent machines rather than the simple reproductions of macroscopic ones. All scaling issues therefore need to be assessed thoroughly when evaluating nanotechnology for practical applications.
This handbook focuses on the applications of Nanomaterials.

Preface ix

VOLUME 1

1.Introduction Nanotechnology • History of Nanotechnology • Government Support • Growing Public Awareness and Controversy • Impact of Nanotechnology • List of Nanotechnology Applications 1

2.Regulation of Nanotechnology Response from Governments • Technical Aspects • List of Nanotechnology Organizations • Nanotechnology in Fiction •Green Nanotechnology • Nanoengineering • Wet Nanotechnology • Nanobiotechnology • Ceramic Engineering •Theory of Chemical Processing 49 3. Materials Science Nanoarchitectonics • Nanoelectronics • Approaches to Nanoelectronics • Nanoelectronic Devices • Nanomechanics •Nanophotonics • Calculus • Chemistry • Ions and Salts •Computer Science • Applied Computer Science • Information Science • Academia 94

4. Nano Miniaturization Fundamental Physics • Condensed Matter • High Energy/ Particle Physics • Mathematics • Literature • Politics and Public Perception of Science • Control of Supramolecular Chemistry • Tissue Engineering • International Center for Technology Assessment • Grey Goo • Popular Culture •Nanorobotics • Potential Applications 147

5. Energy Applications of Nanotechnology Nanomaterials • Fullerene • Computer Models of Stable Nanobud Structures • Aggregated Diamond Nanorod • Carbon Nanofoam • Types of Carbon Nanotubes and Related Structures •Single-walled • Extreme Carbon Nanotubes • Properties 195

6. Nanotube Membrane Bingel Reaction • Endohedral Hydrogen Fullerene • Prato

Reaction • Fullerenes in Popular Culture • Endohedral Fullerene

•Graphene • Potential Applications 264

7. Graphene Nanoribbons Potential Applications of Carbon Nanotubes • Timeline of Carbon Nanotubes • Nanoparticles and Colloids • Colloidal Crystal

•Diamondoid • Polymer-matrix Nanocomposites 299

8. Nanocrystal Nanocrystal Solar Cell • Gradient Multi-Layer Nanofilm

•Nanocages • Nanocomposite 330

9. Nanofibre Nano-Science Center (Copenhagen University) • Nanoflower

•Nanofoam • Nanomesh • Nanopin Film • Nanoshell •Quantum Heterostructure • Sculptured Thin Film •Nanomedicine • Lab-on-a-chip 349

VOLUME 2

10. Nanosensor Nanotoxicology • Toxicology of Nanoparticles • Molecular Self-assembly • DNA Computing • DNA Origam • Self-assembled Monolayer • Patterning of SAMs • Applications of SAMs •Supramolecular Assembly • Break Junction • Chemical Vapour Deposition • Microelectromechanical Systems • Diamond Patterning • Nanocircuitry • Nanocomputer 369

11. Nanoelectromechanical System Surface Micromachining • Molecular Electronics •Nanolithography • Dip-pen Nanolithography • Emerging

Applications • DPN Properties • Common Misconceptions •Electron Beam Lithography • Ion-beam Sculpting 432

12. Nanoimprint Lithography Alternative Approaches • Molecular Nanotechnology • Projected Applications and Capabilities • Mechanosynthesis • Molecular

Assembler • Molecular Mdelling • Smartdust 459

13. Programmable Matter Robotics-based Approaches • Self-reconfiguring Modular Robot Some Current Systems • Self-replication • Self-replication in

Industry • Micromachinery • Nano-abacus 493

14. Nanomotor Nanopore • Nanopore Sequencing • Quantum Point Contact

•Synthetic Molecular Motor • Microscopes and other Devices •Other Enhancements • Atomic Force Microscopy 519

15. Scanning Tunnelling Microscope Millipede Memory • Boride • Inorganic Nanotube • Hybrid Material • Center of Excellence in Nanotechnology at AIT

•Applications of Nanoparticles • Zinc Oxide • Potential Applications • Polyoxometalate • Carbide 555

16. Polymer Nanocomposite Nanoarchitectures for Lithium-ion Batteries • Carbon Nanotubes in Photovoltaics • Nanogenerator 618

17.Nanofluidics Nanofluidic Circuitry • Size Effect of Nanostructures • Optical

Modulators using Semiconductor Nano-structures • Applications and Commercial Products • Polaron • Thermal Properties of Nanostructures • Theoretical Models for Nanowires 644

18.Nanometrology Lithium-ion Battery • Usage Guidelines • Superlens • Plasmon-

assisted Microscopy • Nano-optics with Metamaterials •Nanowire Battery 676

VOLUME 3

      19.Transparent Ceramics Antimicrobial Activity Surface Modification • Chemical Modification 721

      20.Touch Surfaces Application—Water Treatment • Medical and Commercial

      Applications • Vehicle Armour • Matter • Historical Development • Titanium Dioxide • Carbon • Compounds •KikuchiLine 747

      21. Transformation Optics Vapour—liquid—solid Method • Growth Mechanism • Green Chemistry • Biosensor • Principles of Detection • Lithium Aluminium Hydride • Peak Uranium • World Peak Uranium •Water Purification 803

      22. Fuel Cell High Temperature Fuel Cells • Metamaterial • Related Articles

      •Institutional Networks Engaged in Metamaterial Research •Terahertz Metamaterials • Challenges in this Field •Microphone • Nature of Spent Fuel • Spent Fuel Corrosion 876

      23.Microplasma Current Research • Plasma Medicine • Induction Plasma

      Technology • Self-assembling Peptide • Virus 954

      24.Nano Ferrofluid Techniques ENIAward • Natural Scientific Research in Canada • Research Laboratories, Nobel Prizes and the NRC (1900-1939) • Solid•Nanoreactor 1010

Bibliography 1103

Index 1107

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