Classical mechanics is the study of the motion of bodies based upon Isaac Newton's famous laws of mechanics.There are no new physical concepts in classical mechanics that are not already extant in other areas of physics.What classical mechanics does is mathematically reformulate Newtonian physics to address a huge range of problems ranging from molecular dynamics to the motion of celestial bodies.As one of the oldest branches of physics,it has been displaced long ago in many fields of study by newer theories,but classical mechanics is far from being obsolete.Classical mechanics is very useful for analyzing problems in which quantum and relativistic effects are negligible,and its principles and mathematics are the foundation upon which numerous branches of modern physics are founded.And finally,it is a fascinating field of study unto itself-or at least some people think so.Maybe you'll be a fan of classical mechanics too,after having studied it.Statistical mechanics provides a framework for describing how well-defined higher-level patterns or behaviour may result from the nondirected activity of a multitude of interacting lower-level individual entities.The subject was developed for,and has had its greatest success so far in,relating mesoscopic and macroscopic thermal phenomena to the microscopic world of atoms and molecules.Fortunately,many important properties of objects containing very many atoms-such as the boiling and freezing of water-can be obtained from simplified models of the structure of atoms and the laws governing their interactions.This book presents the basics of classic and statistical mechanics to the beginner,and at the same time develops the subject with well-chosen examples and worked-out problems right up to the point where the student can take up an advanced course with confidence.

Preface vii

1. Concept of Atom 1

GaWeo · Newton · Lavoisier · Dalton · Dalton's Multiple Proportions · Gay-Lussac's Simple Ratios: and a Balloon Ride · Avogadro's Hypothesis · Return of the Kinetic Theory • Electrically Produced Elements · Spectra · Melvill's Bright Lines and Fraunhofer's Dark Lines · The Balmer Series · The Bohr Atom • Atomic Size • Nicolson: a Clever Idea about a Wrong Model · Bohr Changes his Mind about Spectra

2. Structure of Atom 30

Discovery of Particles · Decay Curves • Discovery of Electron • Radioactive Decay · Alpha Decay • Beta Decay · Gamma Emission · Spontaneous Fission • Nuclides of Neutrons • Binding Energy • Kinetics of Radioactive Decay · Dating By Radioactive Decay • Ionizing Radiation · Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation • Natural Versus Induced Radioactivity • Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion · Nuclear Synthesis a nd Medicine • Particles in Magnetic Field • Laws of Classical Mechanics • Poisson Brackets • Particle in a Magnetic Field • Quantum Mechanics of Particle in Magnetic Field · Matter and Atoms • Properties of Solids · Strength of Materials • Design of Structures

3. Atomic Spectra 76

Foucault Connects Melvill's Bright Lines and Fraunhofer's Dark Lines • Bunsen and Kirchhoff • The Bohr Atom • Bohr Returns to Denmark • Particles and Waves • A Student Prince Catches a Wave • Wave Packets • Localizing an Electron · Phase Velocity and Group Velocity: Keeping the Wave and Particle Together • Rutherford Scattering · Scattering Alphas · Modeling the Scattering· The Beginnings of Nuclear Physics · Scattering States and Barriers · J .J. Thomson Identifies the Particles • Einstein Suggests an Explanation · Millikan's Attempts to Disprove Einstein's Theory • Cathode Rays • Thomson Discovers the Electron • Marie Curie Investigates Becquerel's Rays

4. Atomic Modelling 123

Matter and Atoms · Liquids: Fluid Pressw:e/Surface Tension · Gases · Speculative Atomism • The Limits of the Divisibility of Matter • Rutherford's Model · Bohr's Model • Multielectronic Atoms · X-ray Spectrums of Atoms • Light Pressure · Properties of Substance · Main Points · Principles of Quantum Mechanics Uncertainty Principle · Electron in the Bohr Atom • Types of Radioactivity · Decay · Induced Radioactivity • Reaction of Division · Elementary Particles · Radioactivity · Radiation Used to Solve Crimes • Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) · Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

5. Nucleus, Protons and Neutrons 196

Nuclear Energy • Structure of Nucleus • Types of Radioactivity · Decay · Induced Radioactivity • Reaction of Division · Elementary Particles · P rotons and Neutrons • Nuclear Structw·e · Atomic Structure • Radioactive Decay • Spontaneous Fission · Neutron-Rich Versus Neutron-Poor Nuclides · Binding Energy Calculations • The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay · Dating by Radioactive Decay

6. Nuclear Physics 221

Fission and Fusion • Mesons, Leptons and Neutrinos • The W±and Z Bosons · Extraterrestrial Particle Physics · Accelerators · Other Linear Accelerators • Nuclear Masses · Nuclear Mass Formula • Physics of Nuclear Fission · Neutron Moderators • Delayed Neutrons and Controllability • Longlived Poisons and Fuel Reprocessing • Short-lived Poisons and Controllability · Oklo: a Natural Nuclear Reactor • Nuclear Relative to Others, US Studies • Future Implications for Nuclear Power

7. Atomic Orbitals and Bonding 252

P Orbitals • Fitting Electrons into Orbitals • "Electrons-inBoxes" · Electronic Structure of Hydrogen • Electronic Structure of Carbon • Atomic Structure and Bonding • The Laws of Falling Bodies • Force and Motion • Relative Motion • Newton's Law of Gravitation • Fundamental Concepts • Electrons in Atoms • The Periodic Table • Bonding Forces and Energies · Primary Interatomic Bonds • Secondary Bonding (Van der Waals) · Molecules • Structure of an Atom • Atom Symbols · Isotopes of Helium • Chart of the Nuclides • Rules that Stable Nuclides Follow • Nuclear Binding Energy

Bibliography 283

Index 287

Josef Carter is Associate Professor of Classical and Statistical Mechanics.He obtained his Ph.D.in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics.His areas of research are:Condensed matter theory,Magnetic and transport properties of nanostructures,Strongly correlated electron systems,Molecular magnetism,Feynman-Kac path integrals,Electronic structure of materials,Positrons in solids,Spintronics,Nano-optics,Electron paramagnetic resonance,Auger and Gamma spectroscopies.

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