Chemistry is a practical science. Practical activities are not just motivational and fun: they also enable students to apply and extend their knowledge and understanding of chemistry in novel investigative situations, which can aid learning and memory and stimulate interest. Good quality, appropriate chemistry experiments and investigations are the key to enhanced learning, and clarification and consolidation of theory. Traditional chemistry starts with the study of elementary particles, atoms, molecules, substances, metals, crystals and other aggregates of matter in solid, liquid, and gas states, whether in isolation or combination. The interactions, reactions and transformations that are studied in chemistry are a result of interaction eit her between different chemical substances or bet ween matter and energy. Such behaviours are studied in a chemistry laboratory using various forms of laboratory glassware. A chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one or more other substances. It can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is most often equal. The nature of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are cons trained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws.
Energy and entropy considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classiHed in terms of their structure, phase as well as their chemical compositions. They can be analysed using the tools of chemical analysis, e.g. spectroscopy and chromatography. Scientists engaged in chemical research are known as chemists. Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines. When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another or energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. Chemical reaction is therefore a concept related to the 'reaction' of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a solution; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well with the system environment which may be designed vessels which are often laboratory glassware.
Chemical reactions can result in the formation or dissociation of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more smaller molecules, or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds. Oxidation, reduction, dissociation, acid-base neutralization and molecular rearrangement are some of the commonly used kinds of chemical reactions. A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation. While in a nonnuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and neutrons. The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its mechanism. A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a different speed. Many reaction intermediates with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the kinetics and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many physical chemists specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical rules, like the Woodward- Hoffmann rules often come handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction.
This book is an intensive introduction to the techniques of experimental chemistry and gives students an opportunity to learn and mas ter the basic chemistry lab t echniques for carrying out experimen ts.

Preface xi

VOLUME 1

1. Barometre Barometre • Types • Compensations • Etymology • Soda Siphons • Social Popularity, Decline, and Renaissance • Historical Development and Importance • An Experimentai Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction • Mechanical Equivalent of Heat • Conservation of Energy • Mechanical Equivalent of Heat • The First Law of Thermodynamics • Chlorophyll • Chemical Structure • Earth's Early Atmosphere 1

2. Geiger-Marsden Experiment Experimentai Procedure and Results • Titration • Types of Titrations • Complexometrie Titration • Endpoint and Equivalence Point • Neutralisation (Chemistry) • Precipitation (Chemistry) • Representation Using Chemical Equations • Redox • Redox Reactions in Biology 39

3. Mass Spectrometry Inductively Coupled Plasma • Sector Instruments • Ion Traps • Tandem Mass Spectrometry • Ion Mobility • Data Analysis • Trace Gas Analysis • Respired Gas Monitor • Biochemistry • Structure Determination • Cell Signalling and Ligand Binding • Structure Prediction and Simulation • Distillation • IdeaHzed Distillation Model • St earn Distillation • Air-sensitive Vacuum Distillation • Pressure-swing Distillation • Distillation in Food Processing • Absorption (Electromagnetic Radiation) • Fluorescence • Analytical Chemistry • Organic Liquids • Resistivity of Various Materials 62

4. Chromatography Chromatography Terms • Techniques by Chromatographic Bed Shape • Techniques by Physical State of Mobile Phase • Techniques by Separation Mechanism • Special Techniques • Simulated Moving-bed Chromatography • Chemometries • Classification, Pattern Recognition, Clustering • Forensic Science • Bioanalysis • Clinical Chemistry 133

5. Elemental Analysis Laboratory Techniques • Air Sensitivity • Cannula Transfer Methods • Handling Pyrophoric Material • Glovebox • Schlenk Flask • Straus Flask 163

6. Electrophoresis Affinity Electrophoresis • Gel Electrophoresis • Capillary Electrophoresis • Modes of Separation • Colour Marker • Commercially Available Kits and Reagents • DNA Separation by Silica Adsorption • Electrical Mobility • Electrophoresis (Journal) 181

7. Electrophoretogram Gel Electrophoresis of Nucleic Acids • HPCE-based Viral Titer Assay • Iontocaine • Iontophoresis • Isoelec trie Focusing in Laboratory • Microchip Based Iso tachophoresis • Kinetic Capillary Electrophoresis • Gel Electrophoresis of Proteins • Dena turing Gel Met hods • Protomap (Prot eomics) • Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis ・ QPNC-PAGE ・ SDS-PAGE • Chemical Ingredients and their Roles • Chemicals for Processing and Visualisation • Prealbumin • Temperature Gradient Gel Electrophoresis • Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis • Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism • Two-dimensional Gel Electrophoresis 217

VOLUME 2

8. Laboratory Techniques Acid-base Extraction • Affinity Magnetic Separation • Air-free Technique • Allele-specific Oligonucleotide • Ames Test • Ammonium Sulfate Precipitation • Animal Testing • Care and use of Animals • Research Classification • Cosme tics Testing • Annexin A5 AfGinity Assay 265

9. Anterograde Tracing Assay • Baby Gender Mentor • Accuracy of the Test Disputed • Blot • Cannula Transfer • Cannula Transfer Methods • Handling Pyrophoric Mat erial • Carnoy's Solution • Cell Counting • Cell Disruption by Nitrogen Decompression 305

10. Cell Fractionation Centrifugation • Centrifugation in Biological Research • Centrifugation Analysis • Chemotaxis Assay • Micro-video・ recording Technology • Clearing Factor • COLD-PCR • Column Chroma to graphy • Auto mated Syst ems • Conditioned Place Preference • Cooling Bath 329

11. Cot Analysis Cot Filtration • Crystallisation • Artificial Methods • Typical Equipments • Main Crystallisation Processes • Cooling Crystallisation • Cycling Probe Technology • Decantation • Degasification • Differential Centrifugation 353

12. Digital Holographic Microscopy Working Principle • Digital Polymerase Chain Reaction • Direct Fluorescent Antibody • Dispersion Stability 377

13. DNA Extraction DNA Footprinting • DNA Laddering • DNase Footprinting Assay • Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing 389

14. Electrochroma tography Electropherogram • Electrophoresis (Disambiguation) • Ethanol Precipitation • Ethidium Homodimer Assay • Far-Eastern Blotting • Field Flow Fractionation • Filtration • Achieving Flow Through the Filter • FLAG-tag • Flow Cytometry • Hybridisation • Variations on Probes and Analysis • Forster Resonance Energy Transfer • Experimental Confirmation of the F^rster Resonance Energy Transfer Theory • Plasma Protein Fractionation 396

15. Gas Chromatography Carrier Gas Selection and Flow Rates • Sample Size and Injection Technique • Data Reduction and Analysis • Gas Chromatography-mass Spectrometry • Types of Mass Spectrometre Detector • Gel Extraction • Gene Gun • Gene ICnockin • Gene Knockout • Helicase-dependent Amplification • Hofmeister Series • Homogenization • Homogenization (Chemistry) • Host-Cell Reactivation • Hot Plate Test • Hydrophilic Interaction Chromatography 433

16. Immunocytochemistry Immunoc yt ochemis try vs. Immunohistochemistry • Immunoelectrophoresis • Immunohistochemistry • Sample Labelling • Target Ant igen Detection Methods • Immunomagnetic Separation • Immunoperoxidase • Impalefection • In Situ Hybridisation • Inverse Polymerase Chain Reaction • Ion-mobility Spectrometry—mass Spectrometry • Analysis of Nano Particleslsotopic Dilution • Isotopic Labelling • Isotopic Tracer • K-Casein • K-factor (Centrifugation) • Kodecyte • Kodevirion • Kugelrohr • Labora tory Auto mation • Laboratory Centrifuge • Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections • Lamm Equation • Liquid Gas • Liquefied Petroleum Gas • Liquid-liquid Extraction • Measures of Effectiveness • Multistage Countercurrent Continuous Processes • Indus trial Process Design • List of Purification Methods in Chemistry • Low Copy Number 468

VOLUME 3

17. Experiments in Molecules Acetic Acid • Methanol Carbonylation • Ethylene Oxidation • Reduction to Alcohols • Formic Acid • Hymenoptera • Chemical Formula • Common Types of St rue tural Formula • Atom • Atomic Theory • Atomic Nucleus • Shell Models and other Quantum Models • Electron • Proton • Neutron • Neutron Interactions • Molecule 521

18. Molecular Spectroscopy Chemical Bond • The Covalent Bond • Coordinate Covalent Bond • Hydrogen Bond in Proteins and DNA • Isomer • Structural Isomers • Stereoisomers • Hydrogen Peroxide • Ciystal • Crystalline Materials • Classification of Crystals by Symmetry • Crystal Symme try and Physical Properties • Polymer • Physical Properties of Polymers 578

19. Acid-base Reaction Common Acid-base Theories • Other Acid-base Theories • Ion • Carbon • Not able Characteris tics • Carbon Exchange Involving Biological Processes • Oxygen 630

20. Covalent Bond History and Theoretical Development • Bond Order • Coordinate Covalent Bonds • Electronegativity • Electronegativity Trends • Carbide • Carbon Monoxide • Principal Chemical Reactions • Organic and Main Group Chemistry • Internal Combustion Engine • Diesel Engine Ignition Process • Engine Configuration • Fuel • Pressure • Relative Pressure or Gauge Pressure • Steam Engine • External Combustion Engine • Rotary Steam Engines • Mechanical Work • Conservation of Mechanical Energy • Carbon Dioxide • Carbon Cycle • Carbon Exchange with the Atmosphere, Biosphere, and Oceans 657

21. Biogeochemical Cycle Nitrogen Cycle • Phosphorous Cycle • Sulfur Cycle • Water Cycle • Hydrogen Cycle • Lactic Acid • Lactic Acid as a Polymer Precursor • Citric Acid • Ethanol • Acid-base Chemistry • Types of Ethanol • Chemicals Derived from Ethanol • Alcohol • Some Simple Alcohols and their Sources • Preparation of Alcohols • Reactions of Alcohols 741

Bibliography 783

Index 787

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