Steam reforming of natural gas or syngas sometimes referred to as steam methane reforming is the most common method of producing commercial bulk hydrogen as well as the hydrogen used in the industrial synthesis of ammonia.It is also the least expensive method.At high temperatures (700-1100 C)and in the presence of a metal-based catalyst,steam reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and hydrogen.The United States produces nine million tons of hydrogen per year,mostly with steam reforming of natural gas.The worldwide ammonia production,using hydrogen derived from steam reforming, was 109 million metric tonnes in 2004.This SMR process is quite different from and not to be confused with catalytic reforming of naphtha,an oil refinery process that also produces significant amounts of hydrogen along with high octane gasoline.The efficiency of the process is approximately 65%to 75%.Steam reforming of gaseous hydrocarbons is seen as a potential way to provide fuel for fuel cells. The basic idea for vehicle on-board reforming is that for example a methanol tank and a steam reforming unit would replace the bulky pressurized hydrogen tanks that would otherwise be necessary.This might mitigate the distribution problems associated with hydrogen vehicles.,however the major market players discarded the approach of on-board reforming as unpractical.

Preface vii

1. Fossil Fuel 1

Types of Fossil Fuels · Petroleum · Empirical Equa tions for the Thermal Properties of Petroleum Products · Formation · Crude Oil Reservoirs · Unconventional Oil Reservoirs • Unconventional Oil • Oil Sands · Oil Sand Locations in the World • Extraction Process of Oil Sands · Classification of Petroleum

2. Crude Oil 37

West Texas Intermediate (WTI) • Argus Sour Crude Index · Price • Commodity Market · Food vs. Fuel · Government Regulations of Food and Fuel Markets · Biofuel from Food Byproducts and Coproducts • Controversy within the International System

3. Petroleum Products 64

Biodiesel • Biofuel · Liquid Fuels for Transportation · Solid Biofuels • Methanol Fuel • Corn Kernels • Etha nol Fuel • Engine Cold Start During the Winter · Reduced Petroleum Imports and Costs • Biofuel in Austra lia · Ethanol Fuel in Brazil • Petroleum by Country

4. Coal 123

Introduction • Types • Peat Coal · Environmental and Ecological Issues • Lignite Coal · Sub-bituminous Coal · Bituminous Coal • Anthracite Coal· Graphite Coal· Uses of Synthetic Graphite • Graphite Mining, Beneficia tion, and Milling · Uses of Coal • Coking Coal and use of Coke · Outcrop Coal

5. Mineral 165

Mineral Definition and Classification • Minera l Groups and Solid Solution · Coal Mining · Modern Surface Mining · Safer Ti.mes in Modern Mining · Coal Mining by Count ry · The Big Vein · Bowen Basin · Gas Fields · Macera! · lnertinite • Vitrinite • Liptinite

6. Coal Mining 205

History of Coal Mining • Coal Mining in India • Clean Coal Technology • Biochar • Thermo Catalytic Depolymerization · Coal-water Slurry Fuel • Fluidised Bed Combustion • Fossilfuel Phase-out • Public Support for a Coal Moratorium • Natural Gas • Sources of Types of Natural Gas • Coal Gas · Change Over to Natural Gas • Biogas • Development Around the World • Crystallised Natural Gas - Hydrates • Hydrates in Natural Gas Processing • Natural Gas Processing • Gas Depletion • Uses of Natural Gas

Bibliography 290

Index 294

中科院文献情报中心