How are languages represented in the human brain? Ideas from neuroscience have increasingly been applied to the study of language, exploring the neural processes involved in acquisition, maintenance and loss of language and languages, and the interaction between languages in bi- and multilingual speakers. With a sharp focus on multilingualism, this culmination of cutting-edge research sheds light on this challenging question. Using data from a variety of experiments, this is the first book-length study to offer a new neuroscientific model for analysing multilingualism. Alongside a comprehensive analysis of the theoretical and experimental contributions to the field, it presents new data and analysis obtained from a multilingualism fMRI study. It also includes a unique longitudinal study of second and third language acquisition combined with extensive empirically valid language proficiency data of the subjects. A must-read for researchers and advanced students interested in neurolinguistics, second language acquisition, and bi- and multilingualism.

List of figures page ix

List of rabies xi

Acknowledgments xii

1 Assembling the pieces: the neuroscience disciplines essential for the study of language and brain 1

1.1 Fundamentals of the functioning brain 2

1.2 Remapping language in the human brain: what to do with the traditional model? 3

1.3 The bilingual brain: the neurological underpinnings of bilingualism 8

1.4 Naming names: looking for language areas in the human brain 14

1.5 Modeling memory: the relevance of models of memory to understanding human language 16

1.6 Imaging technologies and their role in studying language and brain 17

1.7 Major trends in the study of language and brain 20

1.8 The difference between cognitive science(s) and neuroscience 23

1.9 The boundaries of cognitive linguistics and neurolinguistics 24

1.10 Redefining human language 26

1.11 Myths about human language 28

2 BuiJding the basis: linguistic contributions to a theory of language and their relevance to the study of language and brain 32

2.1 The foundation of a theory of language and brain: understanding speech acts 32

2.2 The specific properties of human speech: phoneme production and perception 35

2.3 Misunderstandings about human language 41

2.4 Language and culture: there is no language in t.he one 44

2.5 The evolution of human cognition: how language tits in 47

2.6 Signification and communication in action: building blocks for a theory of language and brain via modeling speech acts (Jakobson, Searle, and Tomasello) 51

2.7 The organizing princi ples of language 54

2.8 Translat ion, translatability, and the speech act model 56

2.9 Tension, translation, and the communication act 58

2.10 Peircean contribut ions to a t.heory of language 59

2. 11 Cross-cultural pragmatics: rounding out a theory of linguistic meaning 65

3 Neuroscience applications to the study of multilingualism 68

3.1 Revelations of language function from conical stimulation mappings 68

3.2 What pathologies reveal about normal function 73

3.3 Aphasia.: the star of the lesion-deficit tradition 73

3.4 How to undersiand the range of aphasic disorders 83

3.5 Medial temporal lobe damage ond language disi niegration: the case of Henry

Gustav Molaison, better known as H.M. 88

3.6 Explicit and impl icit memory systems 97

3.7 Language and aging 99

3.8 Multilingualism and cognitive decline: in1egration of lesion-deficit data and datn from healthy ubjects 101

4 Exploring the boundaries of cognitive linguistics and neurolinguistics: reimagining cross-cultural contributions

4.1 Categories of emotion 103

4.2 What is metaphor? 109

4.3 Defirting lexical meaning: the word in Vygotsky 113

4.4 Language, cultu rnJ boundedness, and universals 120

4.5 Language, perception, and imagery 122

4.6 Letman, Vygotsky, and cognitive model of memory 125

4.7 Sensory-motor in1eractive modeling of language and brain 128

5 Imaging technologies in the study of multilingualism: focus on BOLD fMRI 141

5. 1 Results from imaging studies about language 142

5.2 Early concerns about PET studies of language: Poeppel 145

5.3 Problems of analysis for fMRI language studies 147

5.4 Answering the critiques 154

5.5 Toward a bener understanding of econd language acquisition 157

5.6 Longitudinal analysis of bilingualism and multilingualism: a case study 164

5.7 MANCOVA analysis 177

5.8 Toward an explanation of bilaterality of language 188

5.9 Conclusions and future directions 190

6 Reassembling the pieces: languages and brains 196

6.1 The importance of culture in the evolution of human cognition and language 200

6.2 Memory and language: together at last 201

6.3 Reading as a game changer 202

6.4 Multilingualism throughout the life cycle: change as essential, not essentia list 203

6.5 Reuniting lesion-deficit srudies with research involving healthy subjects 204

6.6 Why imaging research is needed for cognitive neurolinguistics 205

6.7 Where do we go from here? 207

References 209

Index 247

Edan Andrews is Professor of Linguistics and Cultural Anthropology and Nancy and Jeffrey Macrus Professor of Slavic Eurasian Studies at Duke Uniiversity.

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