This textbook is the outgrowth of teaching human factors engineering for 30 years to undergraduates. The course is an offering of the psychology department, just as it was decades ago when I was a student myself. The field of human factors psychology (or human factors engineering, or engineering psychology) has changed markedly during that time. Although it still stays true to its original concerns about the person–machine interface, it has expanded to include new developments in stress research, accident analysis and prevention, and nonlinear dynamic systems theory (how systems change over time), and some aspects of human group dynamics and environmental psychology. Computer technology has permeated every aspect of the human–machine system, and has only become more ubiquitous since the previous edition. The systems are becoming more complex, thus theories need to evolve to cope with the new sources of complexity.
It has been a challenge to find a textbook for the class under these conditions of technological change. At first, I found one that seemed just perfect with regard to the breadth and depth of coverage I was looking for. After a few years it only needed a supplementary reading or two to help out, but eventually it went out of print, never to return. The other textbook choices by that time had diverged greatly in how they characterized the scope of the field. One approach concentrated on tables and graphs for otherwise traditional topics. A second approach retrenched into the theories of cognitive psychology and focused less on the practical problems in human factors. Meanwhile, library shelves were filling up with books on human–computer interaction that were becoming progressively more dissociated from the core concepts of the human–machine interface. The fast pace of technological change did not help any textbook writer who had a mind to identify and extract the fundamental principles of the subject area.
In any case, I hereby present to you the new scope of the psychology of human–machine interaction. The typical roomful of students that I have in mind is usually composed of upper division students and a few graduate students. The class is typically composed of 60% engineering students of different sorts, 35% psychology students, and 5% sundry others. One implicit goal of the course is for the engineers to think more like psychologists, and the psychologists to think more like engineers. The sundry others usually show signs of thinking like both, and make the class situation more interesting for everyone.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank Joseph J. Jacobsen for helping to arrange some of the photographic opportunities that appear throughout this book.

Preface xvii

New to This Edition xix

Author xxi

1. Introduction to Human Factors and Ergonomics1

Entry of Human Factors and Ergonomics 2

      Person–Machine System 3

      Cognitive Core 3

      Work-Space Shell 4

      Computer 5

      Beyond the Great Outdoors 6

Broader Themes in the Text 6

Criteria of Human Factors 7

      Performance Criteria 7

      Industry Standards 7

      Civil Liability 8

      Strict Liability 9

      Contributory Negligence9

      Negligence 9

      Proving the Case 10

2. Elements of Human Factors Analysis 11

Allocation of Function 11

      User Population 11

      Benefits of Machines 12

      Flexible Allocation of Function 14

      Trust in Automation 14

Human Error and System Reliability 16

      Error Probability 17

      Redundancy 17

Usability Testing 18

      Preparation 18

      Iterative Laboratory Testing 18

      Field Testing 19

      Technical Manuals 19

      Cost–Benefit Analysis 20

      System Reengineering 21

Communication, Information, and Entropy 22

      Communication Model 22

Quantifying Information 23

Entropy 23

System Events Change over Time 24

      Perception of Change 24

      What Is Random 25

      Simple Attractors 25

      Bifurcation 27

      Chaos 28

      Fractals 30

      Self-Organization30

      Catastrophes 32

      Emergent Phenomena 33

3. Psychophysics35

Classical Psychophysics 35

      Threshold Concepts 35

      Fundamental Laws 36

Scaling Procedures 37

      Psychophysical Stimuli 37

      Nonpsychophysical Stimuli 39

Signal Detection Theory 40

      Threshold Concepts 40

      Discrimination Index 40

      Minimization of Errors 41

      ROC Curves 42

      Individual Differences 44

      Power Law 44

      Decisions Revisited 45

Fuzzy Signal Detection Theory 45

Multidimensional Stimuli 47

      Multidimensional Scaling 47

      Multidimensional Nonlinear Psychophysics 48

4. Visual Displays 53

Sense of Vision 53

      Visual Acuity 53

      Color Vision 55

      Color Vision Abnormalities 56

      Photopic and Scotopic Functions 57

Perception 57

      Form 59

      Figure versus Ground 59

      Other Principles 60

      Depth 61

      Binocular Cues 61

      Monocular Cues 62

      Motion 63

Principles of Display Design 64

      Types of Basic Displays 64

      Display Design Criteria 64

      Visibility 66

      Distinguishability 67

      Interpretability 70

      Completeness 71

      Parallax Effect 71

      Color and Contrast 71

      Historical and Predictive Displays 72

      3-D Displays 74

      Digital Versus Analog Displays 76

      Heads-Up Displays 77

      Display Panel Organization 77

Signs of Importance 79

      Design 79

      Standards 80

      Behavioral Impact 82

Illumination and Glare 82

      Illumination 82

      Glare83

5. Auditory and Tactile Displays 85

Sense of Hearing 85

      Loudness 86

      Pitch 87

      Timbre 88

      Binaural Hearing 89

Nonverbal Auditory Displays 90

      Types of Nonverbal Auditory Displays 90

      Gestalt Laws of Perception 91

      Streaming 92

      Classic Problems and Solutions 92

      Localization 92

      Confusability 92

      Desensitization 93

      Recommendations 93

      Vigilance 94

      3-D Auditory Displays 95

Speech Displays 95

      Speech Spectrograms 96

Noise 97

      Colors of Noise 97

      More Signal Detection 98

      Hearing Loss and Noise Exposure 99

Tactile Displays 100

      Gloves 100

      Haptic Perception 100

      Knobs 101

      Vibration 101

6. Cognition 103

Organization of Human Memory 103

      Short-Term Memory 103

      Long-Term Memory 105

      Types of Memory 106

      Working Memory 106

      Task Switching 107

      Fluid Intelligence 108

Types of Decisions 109

      Simple Binary Decisions 110

      Optimizing Decisions 110

      Expectancy Theory 110

      Prospect Theory 111

      Incomplete Information 112

      Nonoptimization Decisions 112

      Planning 112

      Predicting a Future State 112

      Divergent Thinking 113

      Production Paradox 113

      Troubleshooting 113

      Fault Isolation 114

      Template Matching 114

      Statistical Template Matching 114

Cognitive Workload 114

      Channels and Stages 115

      Limited Capacity Theory 115

      Variable Capacity Theory 116

      Resource Competition Model 117

      Multitasking 117

Automatization of Cognitive Processes 119

      Telegraph Operation 119

      Controlled Processes 120

      Recognition Primed Decision Making 120

Degrees of Freedom in Cognitive Task Organization 121

      Dynamic Decisions and Situation Awareness 123

      Dynamic Decisions 123

      Control of Dynamic Systems 124

      Situation Awareness 125

      The Complex Adaptive System 127

Cognitive Analysis of a Person–Machine System 128

      Job Descriptions 128

      Functional Job Analysis 128

      Task-Based Job Analysis 130

      Benchmark Jobs 130

      Cognitive Task Analysis 130

      Cognitive Inventory 131

      Hierarchy of Rules, Skills, and Knowledge 131

      Hierarchy of Goals 131

      Ecological Task Approach 132

      Think-Aloud Technique 132

      Cognitive Workload Analysis 133

      Behavioral Indicators 133

      Subjective Indicators 134

      Physiological Indicators 134

      Augmented Cognition 135

7. Psychomotor Skill and Controls 139

Reaction or Response Time 139

Donders’ RT 139

      Type of Stimuli 140

      Stimulus–Response Compatibility 140

      Population Stereotypes 141

Learning and Skill Acquisition 141

      Skill Acquisition 141

      Dynamics of Learning Processes 143

      Speed–Accuracy Trade-Off 144

      Taxonomy of Psychomotor Skills 146

Types of Manual Controls 146

      Multidimensional Controls 150

      Size 152

      Shape 154

      Space of Controls 154

      Labels 155

      Resistance 155

      Control Panels 156

Feedback and Control 158

      Open and Closed Loops 158

      Fitts’ Law 158

      Motor Control 161

      Walking 162

      Reaching and Grasping 163

      Aiming 165

      Order of Controls 165

      Chaotic Controllers 167

      Anticipation 167

      Adding Instability 167

      Periodic Entrainment 168

      Use of Control Parameters 168

Voice Control 169

8. Anthropometry and Workspace Design 171

Body Measurements 171

      Bodies in Motion 173

      Iterative Design 174

Safety and Related Concerns 174

      Machine Guards 174

      Overcrowding 176

      Confined Spaces 176

Physical Abilities 177

      Strength 177

      Flexibility 179

      Body Coordination and Equilibrium 179

      Stamina 179

      Lean Body Mass 180

      Physical Abilities Simulation 180

Some Common Biomechanical Issues 182

      Lifting 183

      Walking Surfaces 184

      Seating 184

      Handtools 185

      Carpal Tunnel Syndrome 185

Computer Workstations 186

      Directory Assistance Operators 186

      Technical Service Representatives 187

      Workstation Experiment 187

      The Near Point 188

Workstations in Health Care Settings 189

9. Stress, Fatigue, and Human Performance 191

Nature and Types of Stress 191

Physical Stressors 192

      Toxins 192

      Extreme Temperatures 192

      Noise 193

Social Stressors 193

      Crowding and Isolation 194

      Electronic Monitoring 195

Speed and Load 195

      Working Too Slowly 196

      Signal Detection Tasks 197

Work Schedules 198

      Circadian Rhythm 199

      Dysregulation 200

Consequences of Stress 201

      Performance 201

      Health 203

Stress and Performance Dynamics 204

      Arousal, Anxiety, and Performance 205

      Levels of Performance 206

      Buckling Stress 207

      Physical Demands 207

      Cognitive Demands 208

      Diathesis Stress 209

      Shiftwork 209

      Occupational Health 210

      Fatigue 210

      Physical Fatigue 211

      Cognitive Fatigue 212

      Cusp Models for Cognitive Workload and Fatigue 215

      Episodic Memory 215

      Pictorial Memory 216

      Multitasking and Ordering of Tasks 218

      Vigilance Dual Task 220

      Summary of Cusp Models 221

      Degrees of Freedom 221

10. Occupational Accidents and Prevention 223

Causes of Death and Injury 223

      Death Statistics 224

      Occupational Accident Trends 224

Structural Risk Models 226

      Individual Accident Proneness 226

      Single-Cause Models 227

      Multiple-Cause Models 228

      Domino Models or Event Chains 229

      Factorial Models 229

      Process-Event Sequences 230

      Fault Trees 231

      Flow Charts and Petri Nets 233

      Complex and Circular Causation Network 234

      Cusp Catastrophe Model of the Accident Process 235

      Complex Dynamics, Events, and Deviations 238

Group Dynamics, Safety Climate, and Resilience 240

      Group Dynamics and Complex Technologies 240

      Safety Climate 241

      Cusp Model for Safety Climate 243

      Safety Culture 245

      Swiss Cheese Model 246

      Resilience Engineering 247

Accident Prevention Programs 249

      Personnel Selection 250

      Technology Interventions 253

      Behavior Modification 255

      Poster Campaigns 255

      Safety Committees 255

      Medical Management 256

      Near-Miss Accident Reporting 257

      Comprehensive Ergonomics 257

      Other Management Interventions 259

      Governmental Interventions 259

Emergency Response 260

      Hazard Perception 260

      Time Ecologies 262

      Situation Awareness and Sensemaking 263

11. Human–Computer Interaction 265

Changing Nature of the Interface 265

Controls 267

      Keyboards 267

      Keypunch Machines 269

      Numeric Keypads 270

      Membranes 271

      Positioning Devices 272

      Touchscreens 273

      Styli 274

      Gestural Interfaces 274

      Mobile Devices 276

      Gaze Control 276

Memory Enhancements 277

      Word-Processing Challenge 277

      Desktop Computer 278

      Menu Structures 279

      Data Storage Capacity 280

      Clouds 281

Visual Displays 282

      Error Messages 282

      Screen Organization 283

      Graphic User Interfaces 286

      Use of Color 287

      Pop Up and Wait 288

      Visual Icons 288

Auditory and Multimedia Displays 290

      Auditory Icons 290

      Speech Interfaces 291

      Earcons and Spearcons 291

      Animation and Hypermedia 292

The Internet and the Web 293

      Origins 293

      Search Engines 295

      Information Foraging 297

      Navigating the Site 299

      Web Pages 299

      Interactive Pages 301

      Extreme Graphics 302

Virtual Reality 303

      Helmet and Wall Displays 304

      Glove and Body Controllers 306

      Anthropometric Issues 307

      Haptic Perception 308

      Training Systems 308

Emotions in Human–Computer Interfaces 308

      Stress and Anxiety 309

      Emotions as Information 309

12. Programming, Artificial Intelligence, and Artificial Life 313

Evolution of Programs 314

      Conceptual Levels of Programs and Systems 314

      Conceptual Levels of System Design 315

Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems 316

      Some Basic Principles 316

      Gödel 316

      Turing 316

      Von Neumann 317

      Simon 318

      Expert System Architecture 319

      Algorithmic Systems 319

      Rule-Based Systems 320

      Chaining Strategies 320

      Classification Structures 322

      Interface Requirements 322

      Frame-Based Systems 322

      Example Spaces 323

      Recursive Systems 324

      Interface Requirements 325

Smart Integrated Displays 325

Large-Scale Integrated Databases 327

      What Is Possible? 327

      Data Mining 329

Artificial Life 330

      Neural Networks 331

      Autonomous Agents 332

Validation Issues 333

      Knowledge Base Validity 334

      Expert Knowledge Space 334

      Extraction of Knowledge 335

      Validity of Rule Groups 336

      Interpretation Validity 336

      Barnum Effect 337

      Meta-Interpretive Reliability 338

      Decision Validity 338

      Signal Detection Technique 339

13. Complex Systems 341

NDS and Complex Systems 341

      Classical System Simulations 342

      Artificial Life Simulations 342

      Cellular Automata 343

      Agent-Based Models 344

      Genetic Algorithms 345

      Complex Adaptive Systems 346

      Emergence 347

      Phase Shifts 347

      Complexity Catastrophes 349

      Synchronicity 349

Real-World Complexity 349

      Individual Operators 349

      Simplifying Designs 350

      Revenge Effects 351

      New Complex Systems 352

      NextGen Air Traffic Control 353

      The Smart Power Grid 353

      Modularity 354

      Multiple PMSs 355

Networks 356

      Social Networks 356

      Nonhierarchical Structures 358

      Centrality359

      Small Worlds 359

Collective Intelligence 361

      Asynchronous Problem Solving in E-Communication 362

      Sensemaking and Situation Awareness 363

      Network Growth 364

      Dynamics of Feedback Loops 365

      Other Temporal Dynamics 366

      Learning Organizations 367

Group Coordination 368

      Implicit Learning 368

      Shared Mental Models 369

      Role of Verbalization 369

      Game Theory 369

      Intersection Games 370

      Nonverbal Communication 371

      Minimum Entropy Principle 371

      Changes in Team Membership 371

      Group Size 372

      Stag Hunt and Emergency Response 372

      Human–Robot Interaction 375

      Group Cognitive Workload 378

Safety in Complex Systems 378

      Transportation 378

      Information Technology 379

      Medicine380

      Butterfly Effects 380

14. Environmental Design 383

Microenvironments 383

      Offices 383

      Homes 384

      Kitchens 385

      Stairs 387

Macroenvironments 388

      Building and Facility Complexes388

      Facilities Management Systems 388

      Defensible Space Theory390

      Navigation through Facilities 392

      Special Populations 394

      Emergency Exits 394

      Sick Building Syndrome 395

The Great Outdoors 395

      Aesthetics and Stress 395

      Navigation 396

Playing in Traffic 397

      Exposure 397

      Driver’s Age 398

      Blood-Alcohol Concentration 398

      Seat Belts 399

      Speed Limits 399

      Risk Homeostasis Theory 400

      Driver Distractions 401

      Driver Response Times 402

      Roadway Configurations 403

      Lighting and Signals404

Outer Space405

      Brief History405

      Overview of Human Concerns 408

      Personnel Selection409

      Gravitational Forces409

      Allocation of Function 410

      Anthropometry 411

      Vision 412

      Vestibular Sense and Motor Control 412

      Sleep 412

      Space Habitats 413

References 417

Index 459

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