The Science of Water: Concepts and Applications, Third Edition contains a wealth of scientific information and is based on real-world experience. Building on the second edition, this text applies the latest data and research in the field, and addresses water contamination as a growing problem. The book material covers a wide range of water contaminants, the cause of these contaminants, and considers their impact on surface water and groundwater sources. It highlights the three distinct and separate sources of freshwater: surface water, groundwater, and groundwater under the direct influence of surface water (GUDISW). It discusses the conditions that constitute GUDISW and the Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR). It also explores sustainability and the effect of human use, misuse, and reuse of freshwater and wastewater on the overall water supply.

To the Reader xvii

Preface xix

Author xxi

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

Still Water 3

Setting the Stage 5

Historical Perspective 7

Thought-Provoking Questions 8

References and Recommended Reading 8

Chapter 2 All about Water 9

How Special, Strange, and Different Is Water? 9

Characteristics of Water 10

      Inflammable Air + Vital Air = Water 11

Somewhere between 0° and 105° 11

Physical Properties of Water 12

Capillary Action 12

Water Cycle 13

Specific Water Movements 14

Q and Q Factors 15

Sources of Water 17

Watershed Protection 18

      Multiple-Barrier Concept 18

      Watershed Management 19

      Water Quality Impact 20

      Watershed Protection and Regulations 20

      Watershed Protection Plan 21

      Reservoir Management Practices 21

Potable Water 21

Key Definitions 22

Surface Water 23

      Location! Location! Location! 23

      How Readily Available Is Potable Water? 23

      Advantages and Discharges of Surface Water 26

      Surface Water Hydrology 26

      Raw Water Storage 27

      Surface Water Intakes 27

      Surface Water Screens 28

      Surface Water Quality 29

Groundwater 29

      Aquifers 29

      Groundwater Quality 31

      Groundwater under the Direct Influence of Surface Water 31

Well Systems 32

      Well Site Requirements 33

      Types of Wells 33

      Shallow Wells 34

      Deep Wells 34

      Components of a Well 34

      Well Evaluation 36

      Well Pumps 37

      Routine Operation and Recordkeeping Requirements 37

      Well Log 38

      Well Maintenance 38

      Well Abandonment 38

Water Use 39

Water Content of Crops, Goods, Beverages, Animals, and Industrial Products 40

Thought-Provoking Question 40

References and Recommended Reading 40

Chapter 3 Water Hydraulics 43

Terminology 43

What Is Water Hydraulics? 43

Water Balance 44

Basic Concepts 44

      Stevin’s Law 45

Density and Specific Gravity 46

Force and Pressure 48

      Hydrostatic Pressure 49

      Effects of Water under Pressure 49

Head 50

      Static Head 51

      Friction Head 51

      Velocity Head 51

      Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) 51

      Pressure and Head 52

      Head and Pressure 52

Flow/Discharge Rate: Water in Motion 52

      Area and Velocity 54

      Pressure and Velocity 54

Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem 55

      Conservation of Energy 55

      Energy Head 55

      Piezometric Surface 55

      Head Loss 56

      Hydraulic Grade Line 57

      Bernoulli’s Theorem 57

      Bernoulli’s Equation 58

Hydraulic Machines (Pumps) 60

      Pumping Hydraulics 61

      Well and Wet Well Hydraulics 62

Friction Head Loss 64

      Flow in Pipelines 64

      Pipe and Open Flow Basics 64

      Major Head Loss 66

      Minor Head Loss 68

Basic Pumping Hydraulics 68

      Piping 68

      Piping Networks 68

      Energy Losses in Pipe Networks 69

      Pipes in Series 69

      Pipes in Parallel 70

Open-Channel Flow 70

      Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow 71

      Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow 71

      Open-Channel Flow Calculations 73

      Open-Channel Flow: The Bottom Line 74

Flow Measurement 75

      Flow Measurement the Old-Fashioned Way 76

      Basics of Traditional Flow Measurement 76

      Flow Measuring Devices 77

      Open-Channel Flow Measurement Using Hydraulic Structures 85

Thought-Provoking Questions 88

References and Recommended Reading 89

Chapter 4 Water Chemistry 91

Chemistry Concepts and Definitions 91

      Concepts 91

      Definitions 92

Chemistry Fundamentals 94

      Matter 94

      Content of Matter: The Elements 95

      Compound Substances 96

Water Solutions 98

Water Constituents 99

      Solids 99

      Turbidity 100

      Color 100

      Dissolved Oxygen 100

      Metals 101

      Organic Matter 101

      Inorganic Matter 102

      Acids 102

      Bases 102

      Salts 103

      pH 103

Optical Phenomena: Water and Light 104

Common Water Measurements 106

      Alkalinity 107

      Water Temperature 107

      Specific Conductance 107

      Hardness 108

Water Treatment Chemicals 108

      Disinfection 108

      Coagulation 109

      Taste and Odor Removal 109

      Water Softening 110

      Recarbonation 110

      Ion Exchange Softening 110

      Scaling and Corrosion Control 111

Chemical Drinking Water Parameters 111

      Organics 112

      Synthetic Organic Chemicals 113

      Volatile Organic Compounds 113

      Total Dissolved Solids 113

      Fluorides 113

      Heavy Metals 114

      Nutrients 114

Thought-Provoking Question 115

References and Recommended Reading 115

Chapter 5 Water Biology 117

Biology and Microbiology: What Are They? 117

Water Microorganisms 118

      Key Terms 118

      Microorganisms in General 119

      Classification of Organisms 119

      Differentiation 121

Cells 121

      Types of Cells 122

Bacteria 124

      Structure of the Bacterial Cell 125

      Bacterial Growth Factors 128

      Destruction of Bacteria 128

      Waterborne Bacteria 129

Protozoa 130

Microscopic Crustaceans 131

Viruses 132

Algae 132

Fungi 133

Microbiological Processes 133

      Pathogenic Protozoa 134

      Giardia 134

      Cryptosporidium 140

      Basics of Cryptosporidium 141

      Cyclospora 144

Thought-Provoking Questions 145

References and Recommended Reading 145

Chapter 6 Water Ecology 149

Setting the Stage 150

      Key Definitions 151

Levels of Organization 152

Ecosystems 153

Biogeochemical Cycles 154

      Carbon Cycle 154

      Nitrogen Cycle 155

      Sulfur Cycle 156

      Phosphorus Cycle 156

Energy Flow in the Ecosystem 158

Food Chain Efficiency 159

      Ecological Pyramids 160

Productivity 161

Population Ecology 162

Stream Genesis and Structure 166

      Water Flow in a Stream 168

      Stream Water Discharge 169

      Transport of Material 169

      Characteristics of Stream Channels 170

      Stream Profiles 170

      Sinuosity 170

      Bars, Riffles, and Pools 171

      Flood Plain 171

      Adaptations to Stream Current 174

      Types of Adaptive Changes 175

      Specific Adaptations 176

An Overview of Benthic Life 176

      Benthic Plants and Animals 177

Benthic Macroinvertebrates 177

      Identification of Benthic Macroinvertebrates 178

      Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web 179

      Units of Organization 180

Insect Macroinvertebrates 180

      Mayflies (Order: Ephemeroptera) 180

      Stoneflies (Order: Plecoptera) 181

      Caddisflies (Order: Trichoptera) 182

      True Flies (Order: Diptera) 183

      Beetles (Order: Coleoptera) 184

      Water Strider (“Jesus Bugs”) (Order: Hemiptera) 186

      Alderflies and Dobsonflies (Order: Megaloptera) 186

      Dragonflies and Damselflies (Order: Odonata) 187

Non-Insect Macroinvertebrates 188

      Oligochaeta (Family Tuificidae, Genus Tubifex) 189

      Hirudinea (Leeches) 189

      Gastropoda (Lung-Breathing Snail) 189

Thought-Provoking Questions 190

References and Recommended Reading 190

Chapter 7 Water Pollution 191

Sources of Contaminants 192

Radionuclides 194

Chemical Cocktail 194

      Byproducts of Chlorine 195

      Existing Regulations 197

      Flocculants 198

Groundwater Contamination 198

      Underground Storage Tanks 199

      MtBE 199

      Industrial Wastes 201

      Septic Tanks 201

      Landfills 202

      Agriculture 202

      Saltwater Intrusion 203

      Other Sources of Groundwater Contamination 203

Self-Purification of Streams 204

      Balancing the Aquarium 204

      Sources of Stream Pollution 205

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations 207

Water Supply, Use, and Wastewater Treatment 209

      Animal Feeding Operations and Animal Waste Treatment 210

Thought-Provoking Question 213

References and Recommended Reading 213

Chapter 8 Environmental Biomonitoring, Sampling, and Testing 215

What Is Biomonitoring? 215

Biotic Index in Streams 217

      Benthic Macroinvertebrate Biotic Index 218

Biological Sampling in Streams 218

      Sampling Stations 220

      Sample Collection 221

      Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment 222

Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Rocky-Bottom Streams 223

      Rocky-Bottom Habitat Assessment 225

Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Muddy-Bottom Streams 228

      Muddy-Bottom Stream Habitat Assessment 231

Post-Sampling Routine 233

Sampling Devices 233

      Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature Monitor 233

      Winkler Dissolved Oxygen with Azide Modification Method 233

      Sampling Nets 234

      Sediment Samplers (Dredges) 234

      Plankton Sampler 235

      Secchi Disk 236

      Miscellaneous Sampling Equipment 236

      Biological Sampling: The Bottom Line 236

Drinking Water Quality Monitoring 237

      Is the Water Good or Bad? 237

      State Water Quality Standards Programs 239

      Designing a Water Quality Monitoring Program 239

      General Preparation and Sampling Considerations 240

Test Methods 244

      Titrimetric Methods 244

      Colorimetric Methods 244

      Visual Methods 244

      Electronic Methods 245

      Dissolved Oxygen Testing 245

      Biochemical Oxygen Demand Testing 250

      Temperature Measurement 253

      pH Measurement 254

      Turbidity Measurement 255

      Orthophosphate Measurement 257

      Nitrates Measurement 260

      Solids Measurement 261

      Conductivity Testing 266

      Total Alkalinity 267

      Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing 268

      Apparent Color Testing and Analysis 276

      Odor Analysis of Water 277

      Chlorine Residual Testing and Analysis 278

      Fluorides 279

Thought-Provoking Questions 279

References and Recommended Reading 279

Chapter 9 Water Economics 281

Introduction 281

Microeconomic Concepts 282

      Water’s Price, Cost, Value, and Essential Nature 284

      Average, Marginal, and Total Economic Values 285

      Why Water Prices May Fail to Encourage Efficient Use 286

      Marginal Product Value of Water 287

      Long-Run vs. Short-Run Values 288

      Dimensions of Water That Influence Its Value 288

Macroeconomic Concepts 289

      Sector View of the Economy 289

      Water Use in Major Economic Sectors 289

      Water Use and Sector Interactions 290

      Water Use in an Open Economy 291

Thought-Provoking Questions 293

References and Recommended Reading 293

Chapter 10 Water Use and Availability 295

Off-Stream Water Use 295

      Public Supply and Domestic Self-Supply 296

      Water Use and the Public Supply 298

      Future Supply 299

      Future Demand and Availability 301

Value of Water Use 302

      Why Domestic Water Rates May Fail to Encourage Efficient Use 302

      Demand Elasticity for Domestic Water 303

      Values from Water Transfer Programs 304

      Methods for Valuing Water Supply Reliability 304

      Methods for Valuing Domestic Water Quality 305

Off-Stream Water Use by Agriculture 306

      U.S. Agricultural Sector 306

      U.S. Agriculture in a Global Context 309

      Livestock 314

      Aquaculture 317

      Supply and Pricing Issues 317

      Water Quality Issues 328

      Value of Water Use by Agriculture 330

Off-Stream Water Use by Manufacturing 331

      U.S. Manufacturing Sector 331

      Water Use by Manufacturing 333

      Value of Water Use by Manufacturing 337

Off-Stream Water Use by Mining and Energy Resource Extraction 340

      Mining 340

      Energy Resource Extraction 341

      Water Use by Mining and Energy Resource Extraction 342

      Value of Water Use by Mining and Energy Resource Extraction 347

Off-Stream and In-Stream Water Use for Electric Power Generation 347

      Generating Capacity and Generation 348

      Distribution of Generation by State 349

      Economic Importance of the Electric Power Generation Sector 349

      Projected Future Generation 351

      Water Withdrawals 352

      Water Use in Cooling for Thermoelectric Power Generation 352

      Hydropower 354

      Water Resource Constraints 355

      Water Quality Constraints 356

      Interaction with Other Uses of Water 356

      Challenges to Estimating the Value of Water 357

      Estimates of the Value of Water in the Electric Power Sector 358

In-Stream Water Use by Commercial Fishing 359

      Landings and Ex-Vessel Revenues 359

      Employment 360

      Links to Other Economic Sectors 360

      U.S. Commercial Fishing and the Global Economy 361

      Commercial Fishing and the Environment 361

      Fisheries Regulation 361

      Habitat Quality 362

In-Stream Water Use by Commercial Navigation 366

      Cargo Shipping 366

      Passenger Transportation 368

      Economic Importance 369

      Water Use by Commercial Navigation 370

      Infrastructure Requirements of Commercial Navigation 370

      Potential Effects of Climate Change on Navigation in the Great Lakes 372

      Influence on Other Uses of Water 373

      Value of Water Use by Commercial Navigation 374

In-Stream Water Use by Recreation and Tourism 374

      Travel and Tourism Industry 376

      Water-Based Recreation: Participation and Expenditures 377

      Overview of Water-Based Recreation 382

      Competition in Recreational Water Use 382

      Long-Term Challenges 383

      Water Quality Issues Affecting Recreational Water Use 384

      Market Value of Water Use 386

      Non-Market Value Estimates for Water-Based Recreational Activities 386

      Impact of Water Supply on Non-Market Recreational Use Values 387

      Impact of Water Quality on Non-Market Recreational Use Values 389

Thought-Provoking Questions 391

References and Recommended Reading 392

Chapter 11 Water Treatment 401

Introduction 401

      Dr. John Snow 401

      Cholera 401

      Flashback to 1854 London 402

      From Pump Handle Removal to Water Treatment (Disinfection) 403

Conventional Water Treatment 403

      Waterworks Operators 404

      Purpose of Water Treatment 404

Stages of Water Treatment 405

      Pretreatment 405

      Aeration 406

      Screening 406

      Chemical Addition 406

      Chemical Solutions 407

      Chemical Feeders 409

      Iron and Manganese Removal 411

      Hardness Treatment 413

      Corrosion Control 414

      Coagulation 417

      Flocculation 420

      Sedimentation 420

      Filtration 420

      Disinfection 425

Thought-Provoking Questions 433

References and Recommended Reading 433

Chapter 12 Water Treatment Calculations 435

Introduction 435

Water Source and Storage Calculations 435

      Water Sources 435

      Water Source Calculations 436

      Water Storage 442

      Water Storage Calculations 442

Coagulation, Mixing, and Flocculation Calculations 444

      Coagulation 444

      Mixing 444

      Flocculation 445

      Coagulation and Flocculation General Calculations 446

Determining Percent Strength of Solutions 449

      Determining Percent Strength of Liquid Solutions 450

      Determining Percent Strength of Mixed Solutions 450

      Dry Chemical Feeder Calibration 451

      Solution Chemical Feeder Calibration 452

      Determining Chemical Usage 453

      Paddle Flocculator Calculations 454

Sedimentation Calculations 455

      Tank Volume Calculations 455

      Detention Time 456

      Surface Overflow Rate 457

      Mean Flow Velocity 457

      Weir Loading Rate (Weir Overflow Rate) 458

      Percent Settled Biosolids 459

      Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L) 459

      Determining Lime Dosage (lb/day) 462

      Determining Lime Dosage (g/min) 463

      Particle Settling (Sedimentation) 463

      Overflow Rate (Sedimentation) 466

Water Filtration Calculations 467

      Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm) 468

      Filtration Rate 469

      Unit Filter Run Volume 471

      Backwash Rate 472

      Backwash Rise Rate 473

      Volume of Backwash Water Required (gal) 473

      Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft) 474

      Backwash Pumping Rate (gpm) 474

      Percent Product Water Used for Backwashing 475

      Percent Mudball Volume 476

      Filter Bed Expansion 476

      Filter Loading Rate 477

      Filter Medium Size 478

      Mixed Media 478

      Head Loss for Fixed Bed Flow 479

      Head Loss through a Fluidized Bed 480

      Horizontal Washwater Troughs 482

      Filter Efficiency 483

Water Chlorination Calculations 483

      Chlorine Disinfection 483

      Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) 484

      Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual 485

      Breakpoint Chlorination Calculations 487

      Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Feed Rate 488

      Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate 490

      Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions 490

      Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite 491

Calculating Percent Strength Using Liquid Hypochlorite 491

Chemical Usage Calculations 492

Chlorination Chemistry 493

References and Recommended Reading 494

Glossary 495

Index 511

Frank R. Spellman, PhD, is a retired assistant professor of environmental health at Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia. The author of more than 90 books covering topics ranging from concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) to all areas of environmental science and occupational health, he has been cited in more than 450 publications, and is a co-author to well-recognized experts in various scientific fields. For example, he is a contributing author of The Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed. Spellman holds a BA in public administration, a BS in business management, an MBA, and both an MS and a PhD in environmental engineering.

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