书名：Rare Earths
责任者：Roskill Information Services Ltd.
出版时间：2015
出版社：Roskill Information Services Ltd.
摘要
Rare earths are a set of 17 elements that share similar properties and are often found together in geological deposits. These elements are seldom found in high grade discrete orebodies and they are often exploited as by-products rather than as the main product of a mine.
The supply inflexibility that characterises all by-product metal markets is pronounced for rare earths. Rare earths suffer from a balance problem: supply and demand for the 15 marketable rare earth elements included in this report are never in balance at the same time. Nature did not create rare earth deposits with convenient relative proportions that match the way rare earths are consumed in 2015.
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目录
1. Summary 1
1.1 Supply 2
1.2 Demand 3
1.3 Supply/demand balance 6
1.4 Prices 7
2. Introduction 10
3. Occurrence and reserves 14
3.1 Mineral resources and reserves 14
3.2 Rare earth occurrences 15
3.3 Primary deposits 19
3.3.1 Carbonatites 19
3.3.1.1 Igneous rock 21
3.3.2 Secondary deposits 21
3.3.2.1 Placer deposits 21
3.3.3 Other sources 22
3.4 Reserves 23
3.4.1 Rare earth reserves 23
3.4.2 Yttrium reserves 26
4. Mining and processing 27
4.1 Rare earth ores 27
4.1.1 Bastnaesite 27
4.1.2 Ion adsorption clays 29
4.1.3 Monazite 30
4.1.3.1 Mining & physical separation 30
4.1.3.2 Alkaline processing of monazite 33
4.1.3.3 Acid processing of monazite 33
4.1.4 Xenotime 34
4.1.5 Eudialyte 34
4.1.6 Apatite 34
4.1.7 Loparite 35
4.1.8 Uranium raffinates 35
4.2 Solvent extraction (Liquid-liquid extraction) 36
4.3 Ion adsorption (Liquid-solid extraction) 37
4.4 Metal and alloy manufacture 39
5. World production of rare earths 40
5.1 Future supply 43
6. Production and processing of rare earths by country and company 45
6.1 Australia 45
6.1.1 Reserves 46
6.1.2 Alkane Resources Limited (Dubbo Zirconia Project) 47
6.1.3 Arafura Resources Limited (Nolans Project) 49
6.1.4 Lynas Corporation Limited (Mt Weld Operation) 50
6.1.5 Northern Minerals (Browns Range project) 54
6.2 Austria 55
6.2.1 Treibacher Industrie AG 56
6.3 Brazil 57
6.3.1 Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineracao (CBMM) 58
6.3.2 Serra Verde 59
6.4 Canada 60
6.4.1 Avalon Rare Metals Inc. 60
6.4.2 Matamec Explorations Inc. 62
6.4.3 Quest Rare Minerals 65
6.5 China 66
6.5.1 Reserves 68
6.5.2 Stockpiles 69
6.5.3 Production quotas 70
6.5.4 Production 73
6.5.4.1 Baogang Group 79
6.5.4.2 China Minmetals Corporation (Minmetals) 83
6.5.4.3 Aluminium Corporation of China (CHINALCO) 85
6.5.4.4 Ganzhou Mining Group 86
6.5.4.5 Guangdong RE Group 87
6.5.4.6 Xiamen Tungsten Group 88
6.5.4.7 Profiles of other major rare earths producers in China 88
6.5.4.8 China Non-Ferrous Metals (NFC) 90
6.5.4.9 GQD (Ganzhou Qiandong) and/or GQG (Ganzhou Qiandong Group) 90
6.5.4.10 Jiangxi Copper 91
6.5.4.11 Molycorp Zibo and Molycorp Jiangyin 91
6.5.5 Exports and trade 92
6.5.5.1 Export quotas 93
6.6 Estonia 95
6.7 France 96
6.8 Germany 98
6.8.1 Vacuumschmelze GmbH & Co KG 99
6.8.2 Siemens AG 100
6.8.3 BASF 100
6.8.4 W.R. Grace & Co. (Grace Davison) 101
6.8.5 MS Schramberg GmbH & Co KG 101
6.9 Greenland 102
6.9.1 Greenland Minerals and Energy 102
6.9.2 TANBREEZ Mining Greenland 103
6.10 India 104
6.10.1 Reserves 104
6.10.2 Production and trade 104
6.10.3 Indian Rare Earths Ltd 106
6.11 Japan 107
6.11.1 Downstream rare earth processors 110
6.11.1.1 Aichi Steel Corporation 110
6.11.1.2 Anan Kasei Co Ltd 110
6.11.1.3 Hitachi Metals Ltd 111
6.11.1.4 Showa Denko K.K. 112
6.11.1.5 Sojitz Corporation 113
6.11.1.6 Shin-Etsu Chemical Co Ltd 113
6.11.1.7 Toyota Tsusho Corporation 114
6.11.1.8 Sumitomo Corporation 115
6.11.1.9 Santoku Corporation 115
6.11.1.10 Mitsui Mining and Smelting Co Ltd (Mitsui Kinzoku) 116
6.11.1.11 Nippon Yttrium Co Ltd 116
6.12 Kazakhstan 116
6.12.1 Reserves 117
6.12.2 Irtysh Rare Earths Company (IRESCO) 117
6.12.3 Summit Atom Rare Earths Company 117
6.13 Kyrgystan 118
6.14 Laos 120
6.15 Malawi 121
6.16 Malaysia 122
6.17 Russia 123
6.17.1 Reserves 125
6.17.2 JSC Acron (Acron) 125
6.17.3 OJSC Uralkali 125
6.18 South Africa 127
6.18.1 Reserves 127
6.18.2 Frontier Rare Earths Ltd 128
6.18.3 Galileo Resources 129
6.18.4 Great Western Minerals Group 130
6.19 Sweden 133
6.20 Tanzania 134
6.20.1 Peak Resources 134
6.21 UK 135
6.21.1 Less Common Metals Ltd 136
6.21.2 Optical Surface Technologies 137
6.21.3 Johnson Matthey 137
6.21.4 Magnesium Elektron 137
6.21.5 MEL Chemicals Inc 138
6.22 USA 138
6.22.1 Reserves 139
6.22.2 Production 139
6.22.3 Molycorp Inc. 140
6.22.3.1 Resources segment 142
6.22.3.2 Chemicals and Oxides segment 144
6.22.4 Rare Element Resources 144
6.22.5 Ucore Rare Metals Inc. 146
6.23 Vietnam 149
6.23.1 Shin-Etsu Chemical 150
6.23.2 Showa Denko Rare Earths Vietnam 150
7. World consumption 151
7.1 Rare earth consumption by end-use sector 154
8. Consumption by element 155
8.1 Lanthanum 156
8.2 Cerium 157
8.3 Praseodymium 158
8.4 Neodymium 158
8.5 Samarium 159
8.6 Europium 159 8.7 Gadolinium 159
8.8 Terbium 160
8.9 Dysprosium 160
8.10 Holmium 160
8.11 Erbium 160
8.12 Thulium 161
8.13 Ytterbium 161
8.14 Lutetium 161
8.15 Yttrium 162
9. Catalysts 163
9.1 Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) catalysts 166
9.1.1 Consumption of rare earths in FCC catalysts 167
9.1.2 Future consumption of rare earths in FCC catalysts 167
9.1.2.1 Crude oil production 169
9.2 Autocatalysts 171
9.2.1 Consumption of rare earths in autocatalysts 173
9.2.2 Future consumption of rare earths in autocatalysts 173
9.3 Producers of rare earth catalyst products 175
10. Permanent magnets 178
10.1 Production of permanent magnets 181
10.2 Outlook for demand for permanent magnets 182
10.3 Consumption of rare earths in permanent magnets 182
10.3.1 Consumption of rare earths in NdFeB magnets 184
10.3.2 Consumption of rare earths in SmCo magnets 185
10.3.3 Production of rare earth permanent magnets 185
10.3.3.1 Production of NdFeB magnets 186
10.3.3.2 Magnet manufacturing techniques 187
10.3.3.3 Production of SmCo magnets 189
10.3.4 Consumer goods and automotive applications for NdFeB magnets 190
10.3.5 Electric vehicle applications for NdFeB magnets 193
10.3.6 Wind turbine applications for NdFeB permanent magnets 196
10.3.7 Producers of rare earth permanent magnets and magnet alloys 200
10.3.8 Research and development that could affect intensity of use for rare earths in permanent magnets 207
10.3.9 Substitution of other magnet technologies 210
10.3.10 Recycling of rare earths in permanent magnets (consumer scrap) 211
11. Metallurgy (including battery alloys) 214
11.1 Consumption of rare earths in metallurgy 214
11.1.1 Consumption of rare earths in iron and steel 215
11.1.2 Consumption of rare earths in NiMH battery alloys 216
11.1.3 Consumption of rare earths in other metallurgical applications 217
11.2 Future consumption of rare earths in metallurgy (including battery alloys) 219
11.2.1 Trends in iron and steel production 219
11.2.2 Trends in NiMH battery production 221
11.2.3 Producers of rare earth metallurgical products 225
11.2.4 Research and development that could affect intensity of use for rare earths in metallurgy 227
11.2.5 Recycling of rare earths in metallurgy 227
12. Polishing 229
12.1 Consumption of rare earths in polishing 229
13. Glass 235
13.1 Display screen glass applications for rare earths 237
13.2 Optical glass applications for rare earths 237
13.3 Other minor glass applications for rare earths 238
13.4 Future consumption of rare earths in glass additives 239
14. Phosphors and pigments 240
14.1 Consumption of rare earths in phosphors and pigments 240
14.1.1 Consumption of rare earths in phosphors 244
14.1.2 Consumption of rare earths in pigments 245
14.2 Production of rare earths phosphors 246
14.2.1 Production of fluorescent phosphors 246
14.2.2 Production of LED phosphors 247
14.2.3 Production of display panel phosphors 249
14.2.4 Production of X-ray and other medical phosphors 249
14.2.5 Production of phosphors for signage applications 250
14.2.6 Other applications for rare earth phosphors 250
14.3 Future consumption of rare earths in phosphors and pigments 251
14.3.1 Lighting applications for rare earth phosphor products 252
14.3.2 Display panel applications for rare earth phosphor products 255
14.3.3 Applications for rare earth pigments 256
14.3.4 Producers of rare earths phosphors and co-precipitates 256
14.4 Future consumption of rare earths in phosphors and pigments 258
14.4.1 Recycling of rare earths from fluorescent lamps 260
15. Advanced ceramics 262
15.1 Consumption of rare earths in advanced ceramics and refractories 263
15.2 Refractories 265
15.3 Electrical and electronic ceramics 265
15.3.1 Ceramic capacitors 265
15.3.2 Solid oxide fuel cells 266
15.3.3 Humidity sensors 267
15.3.4 Collision sensors 267
15.3.5 Hydrogen production 267
15.3.6 Electro-optic ceramics 267
15.4 Engineering ceramics 268
15.4.1 Yttria-stabilised zirconia (YSZ) 269
15.4.1.1 Production of PSZ ceramics 270
15.4.1.2 Tetragonal zirconia polycrystals (TZP) 270
15.5 SiAIONs 272
15.5.1 Uses of SiAION 273
15.6 Silicon nitride 274
15.6.1 Hot pressed silicon nitride 274
15.6.2 Sintered silicon nitride 275
15.6.3 Ceramic hybrid bearing applications for silicon nitride 275
15.7 Future consumption of rare earths in advanced ceramics 275
15.7.1 Producers of rare earth advanced ceramics 276
16. Other applications 279
16.1 Consumption of rare earths in other applications 279
16.2 Fertilisers 281
16.3 Textiles 282
16.4 Water treatment 282
16.5 Lasers 282
16.5.1 Rare earth-doped lasers 283
16.5.1.1 Industrial materials processing applications for rare earth-doped lasers 283
16.5.1.2 Medical applications for rare earth-doped lasers 285
16.5.2 Fusion reactor applications for rare earth-doped lasers 286
16.5.3 Other applications for rare earth-doped lasers 286
16.6 Optical fibres 286
16.7 Nuclear uses 287
16.7.1 Neutron absorbers in nuclear reactors 288
16.7.1.1 Neutron poisons 289
16.7.1.2 Control rods 289
16.7.1.3 Neutron absorbing coatings 290
16.7.2 Neutron radiography 290
16.7.3 Measurement of nuclear stress 290
16.7.4 Nuclear batteries 290
16.8 Superconductors 291
16.9 Magnetostrictive alloys 292
16.10 Jewellery 293
16.11 Electron microscopes 293
16.12 Microwave applications 294
16.13 Self-cleaning ovens 294
16.14 Medical uses 294
16.15 Cement additives 295
16.16 Propulsion jets 296
16.17 Geology 296
16.18 Paints/coating additives 296
16.19 Potential new commercial applications for rare earths 297
16.19.1 PVC stabilizers 297
16.19.2 Magnetic refrigeration 297
16.19.3 Other 298
17. International trade in rare earths 300
17.1 Trade in rare earth mineral concentrates 303
17.2 Trade in cerium compounds 304
17.3 Trade in rare earth compounds (excluding cerium) 310
17.4 Trade in rare earth metals and alloys 316
18. Forecast supply and demand 323
19. Rare earth prices 327
19.1 Rare earth oxides 328
19.2 Outlook for prices to 2020 336
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