Inhabitants of poor, rural areas in the Global South heavily depend on natural resources in their immediate vicinity. Conflicts over and exploitation of these resources - whether it is water, fish, wood fuel, minerals, or land - severely affect their livelihoods. The contributors to this volume leave behind the polarised debate, previously surrounding the relationship between natural resources and conflict, preferring a more nuanced approach that allows for multiple causes at various levels. The contributions cover a wide array of resources, geographical contexts (Africa, Asia and Latin America), and conflict dynamics. Most are of a comparative nature, exploring experiences of conflict as well as cooperation in multiple regions.
This volume finds its origin in an innovative research programme with the acronym CoCooN, steered by The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO/WOTRO) and involving universities and civil society partners in many countries. It presents the conceptual approaches adhered to by each of seven interdisciplinary projects, ranging from green criminology and political ecology to institutional analysis, legal pluralism and identity politics. The volume will be of interest to academics and practitioners concerned with an understanding of conflict as well as cooperation over natural resources.

Acknowledgements ix

List of Contributors xi

1 Introduction MAARTEN BAVINCK, ERIK MOSTERT AND LORENZO PELLEGRINI 1

1.1 Preliminary remarks 1

1.2 The compendium of cases 2

1.3 Situating the cases 4

1.4 Taking action 8

1.5 Ways forward 9

2 Conflict and cooperation on natural resources: Justifying the CoCooN programme GEORG FRERKS, TON DIETZ AND PIETER VAN DER ZAAG 13

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 Conflict and cooperation on natural resources: the academic debates 14

      2.2.1 From old to new wars 15

      2.2.2 Greed versus grievance 16

      2.2.3 Economies of violence 16

      2.2.4 The present position: an emerging consensus 17

      2.2.5 Environmental peace building 19

      2.2.6 Livelihoods 20

      2.2.7 From scarcity to variability 21

      2.2.8 Interdependence 21

2.3 Conflict and cooperation on natural resources: the policy perspective 22

      2.3.1 International concerns 22

      2.3.2 Dutch concerns 26

      2.3.3 Other approaches 27

2.4 Joining science and policy: The CoCooN initiative 28

      2.4.1 CoCooN's understanding of conflict 28

      2.4.2 Creating usable knowledge 29

      2.4.3 Objectives 29

3 New directions in conflict research from an economics perspective SYED MANSOOB MURSHED 35

3.1 Introduction 35

3.2 Conflict and underdevelopment/development 37

      3.2.1 Causes of conflict risk 38

      3.2.2 Social contract 39

      3.2.3 Globalisation and conflict 40

      3.2.4 Prosperity and violence 41

3.3 Natural resource endowments and civil war 42

3.4 Localised conflict 44

3.5 Sectarian and civilisational conflict 47

3.6 Conclusions 48

4 How natural is natural? Seeking conceptual clarity over natural resources and conflicts MARCEL RUTTEN AND MOSES MWANGI 51

4.1 Introduction 51

4.2 Lack of conceptual clarity 52

4.3 What are natural resources? a literature review 53

4.4 What are conflicts? 58

4.5 African scholars and natural resource conflicts 58

4.6 Politics and natural resource conflicts: the EAPCC conflict case 63

4.7 The natural resources - conflicts framework 64

4.8 Conclusion 68

5 Analysing the role of politics in groundwater management - research in Ethiopia, Palestine and Yemen EBEL SMIDT, TAYE ALEMAYEHU, ADEL AL WESHALI, KAREN ASSAF, ABDULLAH BABAQI, D. ABDEL GHAFOUR, ROZEMARIJN TER HORST, FRANK VAN STEENBERGEN, KIFLE WOLDEAREGAY AND OMAR ZAYED 71

5.1 Introduction 72

5.2 Groundwater and management of commons 73

5.3 Conflict and cooperation 75

5.4 Case studies: groundwater management in Ethiopia, Palestine and Yemen 77

5.5 The role of politics 81

5.6 A typology of political states 82

5.7 Factors of change 83

5.8 Conclusion and discussion 86

6 Harms, crimes and natural resource exploitation: A green criminological and human rights perspective on land-use change DÁMIAN ZAITCH, TIM BOEKHOUT VAN SOLINGE AND GUDRUN MÜELLER 91

6.1 Introduction 91

6.2 Crime, harm and criminology 93

6.3 Green criminology 96

6.4 The human rights-based perspective 98

6.5 The Colombian Cauca basin 101

6.6 The Brazilian Tapajós basin 102

6.7 Conclusion 104

7 Property rights, nationalisation and extractive industries in Bolivia and Ecuador MURAT ARSEL, CARLOS MENA, LORENZO PELLEGRINI AND ISABELLA RADHUBER 109

7.1 Introduction 109

7.2 The left turn in Latin America 111

7.3 Nationalisation and property rights 113

7.4 Bolivia 114

      7.4.1 Background 115

      7.4.2 The current legal mining regime 116

      7.4.3 A comparative analysis of legislations and legal decisions 117

      7.4.4 Mines, ownership and the role of the state 117

7.5 Ecuador 119

      7.5.1 A comparative analysis of the 2000 and 2009 mining acts 120

      7.5.2 Mines and ownership 121

      7.5.3 Mining and land ownership issues 122

7.6 Towards a theory of nationalisation and conflict in Bolivia and Ecuador 123

8 Engaging legal systems in small-scale gold mining conflicts in three South American countries MARJO DE THEIJE, JUDITH KOLEN, MARIEKE HEEMSKERK, CELINE DUIJVES, MARIANA SARMIENTO, ALEXANDRA URÁN, INGRID LOZADA, HELCÍAS AYALA, JORGE PEREA AND ARMIN MATHIS 129

8.1 Introduction 130

8.2 Engaging legal systems 131

8.3 The case of Nieuw Koffiekamp (Suriname) 134

8.4 The case of Chocó (Colombia) 137

8.5 The case of Tapajós (Pará, Brazil) 140

8.6 Conclusion 143

9 Theorizing participatory governance in contexts of legal pluralism - a conceptual reconnaissance of fishing conflicts and their resolution MAARTEN BAVINCK, MERLE SOWMAN AND AJIT MENON 147

9.1 Introduction 147

9.2 A theoretical perspective on conflict and its resolution 149

9.3 Collective action and the origin of fishing law 151

9.4 Industrialisation, globalisation and the refashioning of governance 153

9.5 South Asia (Palk Bay) 155

9.6 South Africa 158

9.7 Comparative framework 162

9.8 Concluding remarks 165

10 An analytical framework for assessing the impacts of Jatropha Curcas on Local Livelihoods JOLEEN A. TIMKO 173

10.1 Introduction 175

10.2 The analytical framework 175

      10.2.1 Local people are consulted about potential biofuel projects 178

      10.2.2 Impacts on local landholdings and land use are minimised 179

      10.2.3 Household-level socio-economic impacts are addressed 181

10.3 What scope for reducing conflicts and enhancing cooperation on Jatropha-related projects? 188

11 Challenges in the design of a research and development programme on conflict and cooperation over natural resources JAN JOOST KESSLER, HAN VAN DIJK AND WIJNAND VAN IJSSEL 193

11.1 Introduction 193

11.2 Organisation, expectations and design principles 195

      11.2.1 Organisation 195

      11.2.2 Design of the programme 196

      11.2.3 Definition of expectations and related design principles 196

11.3 Initial observations on progress 199

11.4 Conclusions and remaining challenges 202

Subject index 205

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