Modern civilization as we know it would not be possible without iron and steel. Steel is essential in the machinery necessary for the manufacture of all our needs. Even the words themselves have come to suggest strength. Phrases such asiron willed, iron fisted, iron clad, iron curtain, and pumping iron imply strength. A steely glance is a stern look. A heart of steel refers to a very hard demeanor. The Russian dictator Stalin (which means “steel” in Russian) chose the name to invoke fear in his subordinates. This book is intended both as a resource for engineers and as an introduction to the layman about our most important metal system. After an introduction that deals with the history and refining of iron and steel, the rest of the book examines their physical properties and metallurgy.

Preface page xi

1 General Introduction 1

Nomenclature 1

Phases 2

Production 3

2 Early History of Iron and Steel 4

Native Iron 4

Wrought Iron 6

Steel 8

References 10

3 Modern Steel Making 11

Blast Furnace 11

Coke 13

Bessemer Steel-Making Process 13

Open-Hearth Steel-Making Process 15

Basic Oxygen Furnace 16

Electric Arc Process 18

Furnace Linings and Slags 19

Casting 20

Hot Rolling 21

Cold Rolling 22

Recycling 22

References 24

4 Constitution of Carbon Steels 25

Microstructures of Carbon Steels 25

Pearlite Formation 30

References 34

5 Plastic Strength 35

Dislocation Density 35

Strain Hardening 35

Grain Size 37

Solute Effects 39

Temperature Dependence 39

Hardness 40

Strain-Rate Dependence of Flow Stress 40

Combined Effects of Temperature and Strain Rate 46

Superplasticity 49

Strength Differential Effect 49

References 50

6 Annealing 51

General 51

Recovery 51

Relief of Residual Stresses 54

Recrystallization 54

Grain Growth 58

References 65

7 Deformation Mechanisms and Crystallographic Textures 66

Slip and Twinning Systems 66

Wire Textures in bcc Metals 66

Rolling Texture 71

Compression Texture 72

Recrystallization Textures 77

References 79

8 Substitutional Solid Solutions 80

Phase Diagrams 80

Ternary Phase Diagrams 80

Effects of Solutes on the Eutectoid Transformation 80

Effect of Solutes on Physical Properties 81

Solid Solution Hardening 81

Carbide-Forming Tendencies 88

Solute Segregation to Grain Boundaries 89

References 89

9 Interstitial Solid Solutions 90

Atomic Diameters 90

Lattice Sites for Interstitials 90

Lattice Expansion with C, N 92

Solubility of Carbon and Nitrogen 93

Snoek Effect in bcc Metals 95

References 97

10 Diffusion 98

General 98

Mechanisms of Diffusion 99

Diffusion of Interstitials 102

References 103

11 Strain Aging 104

Yielding and Luders Bands 104 ¨

Strain Aging 105

Dynamic Strain Aging 109

References 112

12 Austenite Transformation 113

Kinetics of Austenization 113

Pearlite Formation 113

Isothermal Transformation 120

Bainite 123

Continuous Cooling Diagrams 123

Martensite 125

Retained Austenite 126

Transformation to Martensite 128

Martensite Types 132

Special Heat Treatments 133

Miscellany 135

References 136

13 Hardenability 137

Jominy End-Quench Test 137

Hardenability Bands 140

Ideal Diameter Calculations 142

Boron 146

Miscellany 149

References 149

14 Tempering and Surface Hardening 150

Tempering 150

Secondary Hardening 156

Temper Embrittlement 157

Carburizing 158

Carburizing Kinetics 159

Kinetics of Decarburization 162

Carboaustempering 163

Nitriding 163

Carbonitriding 164

Case Hardening Without Composition Change 165

Furnace Atmospheres 165

References 165

15 Low-Carbon Sheet Steel 167

Sheet Steels 167

Strength 168

Grades of Low-Carbon Steel 168

Weathering Steel 174

Heating During Deformation 174

Taylor-Welded Blanks 175

Special Sheets 176

Surface Treatment 177

Special Concerns 178

References 178

16 Sheet Steel Formability 179

Anisotropic Yielding 182

Effect of Strain Hardening on the Yield Locus 186

Deep Drawing 187

Stamping 189

Forming Limits 191

References 193

17 Alloy Steels 195

Designation System 195

Effect of Alloying Elements 195

Applications 197

References 197

18 Other Steels 198

Hadfield Austenitic Manganese Steel 198

Maraging Steels 198

Tool Steels 199

Heat Treatment of Tool Steels 201

Note of Interest 202

References 204

19 Stainless Steels 205

General Corrosion Resistance 205

Ferritic Stainless Steels 205

Martensitic Stainless Steels 208

Austenitic Stainless Steels 209

Other Stainless Steels 212

Sensitization 214

Oxidation Resistance 216

References 217

20 Fracture 218

Ductile Fracture 218

Brittle Fracture 222

Transition Temperature 226

Liquid Metal Embrittlement 227

Hydrogen Embrittlement 227

Fatigue 229

References 233

21 Cast Irons 234

Production 234

General 234

White Irons 237

Gray Irons 237

Compact Graphite Iron 242

Ductile Cast Iron 244

Malleable Cast Iron 244

Matrices 246

Austempering of Cast Irons 250

Damping Capacity 254

References 255

22 Magnetic Behavior of Iron 256

General 256

Ferromagnetism 257

Magnetostatic Energy 261

Magnetocrystalline Energy 262

Magnetostriction 262

Physical Units 263

The B-H Curve 264

Bloch Walls 266

Soft Versus Hard Magnetic Materials 266

Soft Magnetic Materials 266

Silicon Steel 270

Hard Magnetic Materials 272

Summary 274

References 275

23 Corrosion 276

Corrosion Cells 276

Polarization and Passivity 279

Pourbaix Diagram 283

Types of Corrosion 284

Corrosion Control 285

Rust 287

Direct Oxidation 287

References 289

Appendix I: Physical Properties of Pure Iron 291

Appendix II: Approximate Hardness Conversions

and Tensile Strengths of Steels 293

Index 295

William F. Hosford is Professor Emeritus of Materials Science at the University of Michigan. He is the author of numerous research publications and the following books: The Mechanics of Crystals and Textured Polycrystals (1993); Physical Metallurgy (2005); Materials Science: An Intermediate Text (2007); Materials for Engineers (2008); Reporting Results: A Practical Guide for Scientists and Engineers with David C. Van Aken (2008); Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 2nd edition (2009); Wilderness Canoe Tripping (2009); Solid Mechanics (2010); Physical Metallurgy, 2nd edition (2010); and Metal Forming: Mechanics and Metallurgy, 4th edition, with Robert M. Caddell (2011).

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