This edition reflects updates of and emendations to the first edition, which originally derived from notes developed and assembled over many years of teaching propulsion and high-speed airplane and spacecraft design courses at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (now part of New York Univer-sity), as well as courses in propulsion and aerospace vehicle design at the University of Florida. The book remains aimed at presenting the theory and concepts of propulsion through a fundamental approach suitable for courses at the senior undergraduate and first year master's level. The exercises are intended to promote an appreciation for applications of the theory to problems of practical interest.
General changes to the first edition include the addition of an introductory section at the start of each chapter as well as a summary section concluding each chapter. Many of the figures and graphs have been improved, additional example problems have been added, and the number of exercises increased. Errors appearing in the first edition have been tracked down and corrected.
Chapter 1, now titled "Propulsion Principles and Engine Classification," is aimed at introducing the reader to the different types of jet propulsion engines and provides a quantitative foundation based on quasi-one-dimensional conservation equations. Airbreathing propulsion systems treated include propellers, turbojets, turbofans, pulsejets, ramjets, and scramjets. The section on the turbofan has been rewritten and sections on aerospace propulsion fuels and space propulsion engines have been added. The section dealing with the conditions for achieving maximum thrust has been expanded and moved to Chapter 5, which deals with nozzles.
Chapter 2 develops the quasi-one-dimensional equations that enjoy wide use in the design and analysis of various propulsion systems. The section on the conservation of chemical species equation was rewritten and the section on the equations of motion in standard form was expanded to include classical Fanno and Rayleigh flows.
Chapter 3 carries out an extensive set of analyses of the operation of a variety of airbreathing engines under conditions of ideal operation to maintain a focus on underlying concepts. Eight separate cases are studied: maximum power takeoff of turbojets and turbofans, high subsonic cruise of turbojets and turbofans, supersonic cruise of turbojets, turbofans, and ramjets, and hypersonic cruise of scramjets. These detailed analyses offer the equivalent of a set of sample exercises to aid the reader in understanding the ideal workings of the various engines and flight regimes. A section on the effect of the efficiencies of the various components of real engines is presented in a manner that should facilitate repeating the calculation of all the cases with reasonable concern for the losses common to practical operation.
Chapters 4, 5, and 6 each concentrate on one of the three engine components basic to jet propulsion principles: combustors, nozzles, and inlets. Fundamentals are discussed in some detail and application to actual hardware is shown. Chapter 4 deals with combustion chambers for airbreathing engines and treats constant area and constant pressure combustors and includes a new section on supersonic combustion. The calculation of chemical equilibrium composition and adiabatic flame temperature is described and a more comprehensive example problem for adiabatic flame temperature replaces the simpler one in the previous edition. Chapter 5 is now titled "Nozzles for Airbreathing Engines" denoting its particular emphasis. A section on conditions for maximum thrust has been added and includes the effects of stagnation temperature and back pressure on thrust. Chapter 6 is now called "Inlets for Airbreathing Engines" and includes a section on inlets in subsonic flight which discusses inlet lip design, inlet duct friction losses, and inlet boundary layer diverters. A section on total pressure recovery with friction and shock wave losses has been added.
Then Chapters 7 and 8 are devoted to the fundamentals of the turbomachinery required for operating airbreathing jet engines throughout the flight range up to and including supersonic speeds. Chapter 7 develops the gas dynamics and thermodynamics of turbomachinery needed for analyzing centrifugal flow compressors and axial flow compressors and turbines, including velocity diagrams and the development of performance maps from basic aerodynamic principles. Chapter 8 delves deeper into the details of flows within blade passages and discusses the important factors of boundary layer separation for compressors and heat transfer for turbines. A new section on calculating the optimum Mach number at the compressor face has been added.
Integrating the various components discussed in the previous five chapters into a working engine is the subject of Chapter 9. The description of different types of turbojet and turbofan engines now includes a discussion on the geared turbofan engine. The similarity variables important in the matching process are derived and detailed matching analyses for two basic design approaches are presented. Issues concerning inlet-engine matching, thrust monitoring and control in flight, and fuel delivery systems are discussed.
The last chapter concerned with aircraft flight operations is Chapter 10, which covers the operation of propellers and the application of the gas turbine engine to them. A section devoted to a simple analysis for determining static thrust and a section on geared turbofans and open rotor engines have been added along with an extensive example problem on turboprop performance.
Chapters 11 and 12 are concerned with liquid and solid propellant rocket engines, respectively, while Chapter 13 is devoted to space propulsion systems. Chapter 11 has been expanded and largely rewritten and a section on propellant density and specific impulse has been added. The section on liquid propellants now includes detailed assessments of the LH2-LOX, RP1-LOX, and the LCH4/LOX propellant combinations. The section on liquid propellant tank and feed system design has been updated and rewritten and now includes discussion of liquid propellant tank characteristics, analysis, and structural design, as well as liquid propellant feed systems and turbopump analysis and sizing considerations. Chapter 12 deals with solid propellant rocket motors and includes a new section on solid propellant rocket motor sizing and an associated worked example.
Chapter 13 covers the area of space propulsion with attention given to electric propulsion techniques that are of importance in satellite operations and space exploration and now incorporates nuclear propulsion and its possible role in interplanetary missions.
The eight appendices deal with important auxiliary information for the main text: Appendix A presents equations for the calculation of shock waves and expansions and includes tables and charts. Appendix B gives tables for the properties of hydrocarbon fuel combustion products and includes a narrative explaining the tables and their use. Appendix C gives a brief discussion of the physics of the earth's atmosphere with expanded tables of atmospheric properties for greater utility. The material in Appendices D and E covers boost phase and staging of rockets and safety, reliability, and risk assessment using material from the author 's book Manned Spacecraft Design Principles (Elsevier, 2015). Appendix F deals with aircraft performance in takeoff and cruise using material from the author's book Commercial Airplane Design Principles (Elsevier, 2014). Tables of thermodynamic properties of selected chemical species appropriate to propulsion applications are presented in Appendix G while H provides a listing of useful constants and conversion factors.
I would like to again acknowledge the inspiration provided by Professor Antonio Ferri, pioneer and champion of scramjet development, who taught propulsion courses I took as a graduate student at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn many years ago. Appreciation is also due my close colleagues Professor Herbert Fox of the New York Institute of Technology and the late Professor Marian Visich of the State University of New York at Stony Brook for their long-term cooperation in, criticism of, and support for this book. Thanks are also due to a number of reviewers who have offered well-considered criticism of the first edition and provided useful suggestions and recommendations which I hope I have used wisely in preparing this edition.
Finally, and most importantly, I thank my wife, Anne, who continues to encourage, support, and assist me in these writing projects in spite of the time it takes me away from her company.

Preface to the Second Edition xviii

CHAPTER 1 Propulsion Principles and Engine Classification 1

1.1 Introduction to Aerospace Propulsion Engines 2

1.2 Conservation Equations 3

      1.2.1 Conservation of Mass 4

      1.2.2 Conservation of Momentum 4

      1.2.3 Conservation of Energy 5

1.3 Flow Machines with No Heat Addition: Propellers, Fans, Compressors, and Turbines 5

      1.3.1 Zero Heat Addition with Ve > V0 7

      1.3.2 Zero Heat Addition with Ve < V0 7

      1.3.3 Zero Heat Addition with P = Constant > 0 7

      1.3.4 Propulsive Efficiency 8

      1.3.5 Example: Propeller Speed and Thrust 8

1.4 Flow Machines with No Net Power Addition: Turbojets, Ramjets, Scramjets, and Pulsejets 10

      1.4.1 Heat Addition, Q > 0 10

      1.4.2 Thrust Variation with Flight Speed 13

      1.4.3 Overall Efficiency 13

      1.4.4 Fuel Efficiency 14

      1.4.5 Example: Turbojet Specific Fuel Consumption 18

1.5 Flow Machines with P= 0, Q = Constant and A0 = 0: The Rocket 20

      1.5.1 Thrust Variation with Flight Speed 20

      1.5.2 Propulsive Efficiency 21

      1.5.3 Fuel Efficiency and Specific Impulse 21

1.6 The Special Case of Combined Heat and Power: The Turbofan 23

      1.6.1 Very Small Bypass Ratio, β « 1, the Turbojet 24

      1.6.2 Small to Large Bypass Ratio, β ≤ 10, the Turbofan 25

      1.6.3 Example: Turbofan Specific Fuel Consumption 26

      1.6.4 Very Large Bypass Ratio, β » 1, the Turboprop and the Open Rotor 27

1.7 Aerospace Propulsion Fuels 28

      1.7.1 Jet Engine Fuels 29

      1.7.2 Rocket Engine Fuels 30

      1.7.3 Fuel Energy Content 30

1.8 Space Propulsion Engines 31

      1.8.1 Heat Addition Using Nuclear or Electric Power 31

      1 8.2 Electrostatic Acceleration 32

      1.8.3 Electromagnetic Acceleration 32

1.9 The Force Field for Airbreathing Engine 33

      1.9.1 Example: Jet Engine Performance 39

      1.9.2 Example: Rocket Engine Performance 41

1.10 Summary 42

1.11 Useful Constants and Conversion Factors 43

1.12 Nomenclature 43

      1.12.1 Subscripts 44

1.13 Exercises 45

References 52

CHAPTER 2 Quasi-One-Dimensional Flow Equations 53

2.1 Introduction to the Flow Equations 53

2.2 Equation of State 54

2.3 Speed of Sound 55

2.4 Mach Number 55

2.5 Conservation of Mass 56

2.6 Conservation of Energy 58

      2.6.1 Thermodynamics of Perfect Gas Mixtures 58

      2.6.2 The Fuel-Air Mixture 59

      2.6.3 Example: Heating Values for Different Fuel-Oxidizer Combinations 61

2.7 Conservation of Species 62

2.8 Conservation of Momentum 64

2.9 The Impulse Function 64

2.10 The Stagnation Pressure 65

2.11 The Equations of Motion in Standard Form 65

      2.11.1 Simple Flows with Friction: The Fanno Line 65

      2.11.2 Example: Flow in a Duct with Friction 70

      2.11.3 Simple Flows with Heating or Cooling: The Rayleigh Line 72

      2.11.4 Example: Flow in a Duct with Heating 74

2.12 Summary 77

2.13 Nomenclature 77

      2.13.1 Subscripts 78

      2.13.2 Superscripts 79

2.14 Exercises 79

References 84

CHAPTER 3 ldealized Cycle Analysis of Jet Propulsion Engines 85

3.1 Introduction to Engine Cycle Analysis 87

3.2 General Jet Engine Cycle 87

3.3 Ideal Jet Engine Cycle Analysis 90

3.4 Ideal Turbojet in Maximum Power Takeoff 91

      3.4.1 Inlet Flow, Stations 0-2 92

      3.4.2 Compressor Flow, Stations 2-3 92

      3.4.3 Combustor Flow, Stations 3-4 93

      3.4.4 Turbine Flow, Stations 4-5 94

      3.4.5 Nozzle Flow, Stations 5-7 95

      3.4.6 Turbojet Thrust and Fuel Efficiency in Takeoff 96

      3.4.7 Real Turbojet Engine in Takeoff 98

3.5 Ideal Turbojet in High Subsonic Cruise in the Stratosphere 99

      3.5.1 Inlet Flow, Stations 0-2 99

      3.5.2 Compressor Flow, Stations 2-3 100

      3.5.3 Combustor Flow, Stations 3-4 100

      3.5.4 Turbine Flow, Stations 4-5 101

      3.5.5 Nozzle Flow, Stations 5-7 101

      3.5.6 Turbojet Thrust and Fuel Efficiency in Cruise 104

      3.5.7 Real Turbojet Engine in Subsonic Cruise 106

3.6 Ideal Turbojet in Supersonic Cruise in the Stratosphere 107

      3.6.1 Inlet Flow, Stations 0-2 107

      3.6.2 Compressor Flow, Stations 2-3 107

      3.6.3 Combustor Flow, Stations 3-4 108

      3.6.4 Turbine Flow, Stations 4-5 108

      3.6.5 Afterburner Flow, Stations 5-5b 109

      3.6.6 Nozzle Flow, Stations 5b-7 112

      3.6.7 Turbojet Thrust and Fuel Efficiency in Supersonic Cruise 112

      3.6.8 Real Turbojet Engine in Supersonic Cruise 115

3.7 Ideal Ramjet in High Supersonic Cruise in the Stratosphere 115

      3.7.1 Inlet Flow, Stations 0-2,3 116

      3.7.2 Combustor Flow, Stations 2,3-4,5 117

      3.7.3 Nozzle Flow, Stations 4,5-7 117

      3.7.4 Ramjet Thrust and Fuel Efficiency in High Supersonic Cruise 118

      3.7.5 Real Ramjet in High Supersonic Cruise 120

3.8 Ideal Turbofan in Maximum Power Takeoff 121

      3.8.1 Inlet Flow, Stations 0-2 122

      3.8.2 Compressor Flow, Stations 2-3 122

      3.8.3 Fan Flow, Stations 2-3 F 122

      3.8.4 Combustor Flow, Stations 3-4 124

      3.8.5 Turbine Flow, Stations 4-5 124

      3.8.6 Nozzle Flow, Stations 5-7 126

      3.8.7 Turbofan Thrust and Fuel Efficiency in Takeoff 128

      3.8.8 Real Turbofan Engine in Takeoff 131

3.9 Ideal Turbofan in High Subsonic Cruise in the Stratosphere 132

      3.9.1 Inlet Flow, Stations 0-2 132

      3.9.2 Compressor Flow, Stations 2-3 132

      3.9.3 Fan Flow, Stations 2-3F 133

      3.9.4 Combustor Flow, Stations 3-4 134

      3.9.5 Turbine Flow, Stations 4-5 134

      3.9.6 Nozzle Flow, Stations 5-7 136

      3.9.7 Turbofan Thrust and Fuel Efficiency in Cruise 138

      3.9.8 Real Turbofan in High Subsonic Cruise 142

3.10 Ideal Internal Turbofan in Supersonic Cruise in the Stratosphere 142

      3.10.1 Inlet Flow, Stations 0-2 143

      3.10.2 Compressor Flow, Stations 2-3 143

      3.10.3 Fan Flow, Stations 2-5F 144

      3.10.4 Combustor Flow, Stations 3-4 144

      3.10.5 Turbine Flow, Station 4-5 145

      3.10.6 Afterbumer Flow, Stations 5-5b 148

      3.10.7 Nozzle Flow, Stations 5b-7 151

      3.10.8 Turbofan Thrust and Fuel Efficiency in Supersonic Cruise 151

      3.10.9 Real Internal Turbofan in Supersonic Cruise 155

3.11 Ideal Scramjet in Hypersonic Cruise in the Stratosphere 155

      3.11.1 Inlet Flow, Stations 0-2 157

      3.11.2 Isolator Flow, Stations 2-3 157

      3.11.3 Combustor Flow, Stations 3-4 157

      3.11.4 Nozzle Flow, Stations 4-7 160

      3.11.5 Scramjet Thrust and Fuel Efficiency in High Supersonic Cruise 161

      3.11.6 Real Scramjet in Hypersonic Cruise 163

3.12 Real Engine Operations 166

      3.12.1 Inlet Operation 166

      3.12.2 Compressor and Fan Operation 167

      3.12.3 Combustor and Afterburner Operation 167

      3.12.4 Turbine Operation 168

      3.12.5 Nozzle Operation 168

3.13 Summary 168

3.14 Nomenclature 169

      3.14.1 Subscripts 170

3.15 Exercises 170

References 171

CHAPTER 4 Combustion Chambers for Airbreathing Engines 172

4.1 Introduction to Combustion Chambers 172

4.2 Combustion Chamber Attributes 173

4.3 Modeling the Chemical Energy Release 174

4.4 Constant Area Combustors 176

      4.4.1 Example: Constant Area Combustor 178

4.5 Constant Pressure Combustors 179

      4.5.1 Example: Constant Pressure Combustor 182

4.6 Fuels for Airbreathing Engines 183

4.7 Combustor Efficiency 185

4.8 Combustor Configuration 187

      4.8.1 Example: Secondary Air for Cooling 189

4.9 Supersonic Combustion 192

4.10 Criteria for Equilibrium in Chemical Reaction 195

4.11 Calculation of Equilibrium Compositions 196

      4.11.1 Example: Homogeneous Reactions with a Direct Solution 197

      4.11.2 Example: Homogeneous Reactions with Trial and Error Solution 199

      4.11.3 Example: Estimation of Importance of Neglected Product Species 200

4.12 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 202

      4.12.1 Example: Adiabatic Flame Temperature for a CH4/O2 Mixture 205

4.13 Summary 210

4.14 Nomenclature 211

      4.14.1 Subscripts 211

      4.14.2 Superscripts 212

4.15 Exercises 212

References 215

CHAPTER 5 Nozzles for Airbreathing Engines 216

5.1 Introduction to Nozzles 217

5.2 Nozzle Characteristics and Simplifying Assumptions 217

      5.2.1 Frictional Effects 218

      5.2.2 Drag Effects 218

      5.2.3 Energy Transfer Effects 219

5.3 Nozzle Flows with Simple Area Change 220

5.4 Mass Flow in an Isentropic Nozzle 221

      5.4.1 Example: Nozzle Mass Flow 223

5.5 Nozzle Operation 225

5.6 Normal Shock Inside the Nozzle 227

      5.6.1 Example: Shock in the Nozzle 229

5.7 Two-Dimensional Considerations in Nozzle Flows 230

      5.7.1 Example: Overexpanded Nozzle 232

      5.7.2 Example: Underexpanded Nozzle 233

5.8 Conditions for Maximum Thrust 234

      5.8.1 Effect of Stagnation Temperature on Thrust 234

      5.8.2 Effect of Back Pressure on Thrust 235

      5.8.3 Example: Maximum Thrust 238

5.9 Afterburning for Increased Thrust 241

5.10 Nozzle Configuration 243

      5.10.1 Geometry Requirements 243

      5.10.2 Simple Ejector Theory 245

      5.10.3 Ejector Application to High-Performance Aircraft 247

      5.10.4 Convergent-Divergent Iris Nozzles 249

      5.10.5 Thrust-Vectoring Nozzles 250

5.11 Nozzle Performance 251

5.12 Summary 259

5.13 Nomenclature 259

      5.13.1 Subscripts 260

      5.13.2 Superscripts 261

5.14 Exercises 261

References 267

CHAPTER 6 Inlets for Airbreathing Engines 269

6.1 Introduction to Inlets 269

6.2 Inlet Operation 270

6.3 Inlet Mass Flow Performance 271

6.4 Inlet Pressure Performance 274

6.5 Inlets in Subsonic Flight 276

      6.5.1 Inlet Lip Design 276

      6.5.2 Inlet Duct Friction Losses 277

      6.5.3 Inlet Boundary Layer Diverters 280

6.6 Normal Shock Inlets in Supersonic Flight 281

6.7 Internal Compression Inlets 284

6.8 Internal Compression Inlet Operation 287

      6.8.1 Example: Internal Compression Inlet 292

6.9 Additive Drag 295

6.10 External Compression Inlets 296

      6.10.1 Example: External Compression Inlet 300

6.11 Mixed Compression Inlets 303

6.12 Total Pressure Recovery with Friction and Shock Wave Losses 304

6.13 Hypersonic Flight Considerations 305

6.14 Summary 307

6.15 Nomenclature 307

      6.15.1 Subscripts 308

      6.15.2 Superscripts 308

6.16 Exercises 309

References 315

CHAPTER 7 Turbomachinery 316

7.1 Introduction to Turbomachines for Propulsion 317

7.2 Thermodynamic Analysis of a Compressor and a Turbine 318

      7.2.1 Compressor Thermodynamics 320

      7.2.2 Turbine Thermodynamics 321

      7.2.3 Units Used in Compressors and Turbines 322

7.3 Energy Transfer Between a Fluid and a Rotor 323

      7.3.1 Velocity Components and Work in Turbomachines 326

7.4 The Centrifugal Compressor 328

      7.4.1 Axial Entry Centrifugal Compressor 330

      7.4.2 Example: Centrifugal Compressor 332

      7.4.3 Pressure Coefficient 333

      7.4.4 Effects Due to the Number and Shape of Blades 336

      7.4.5 Guide Vanes, Diffusers, and Volutes 341

7.5 Centrifugal Compressors, Radial Turbines, and Jet Engines 342

7.6 The Axial Flow Compressor 343

      7.6.1 Velocity Diagrams 344

      7.6.2 Pressure Rise Through Axial Flow Compressor Stages 345

      7.6.3 Types of Compressor Stages 348

      7.6.4 Effects of Staging 352

      7.6.5 Example: Axial Compressor Stages 353

      7.6.6 Polytropic Efficiency of Adiabatic Compression 354

7.7 The Axial Flow Turbine 356

      7.7.1 Velocity Diagrams 356

      7.7.2 Pressure Drop Through Axial Flow Turbine Stages 357

      7.7.3 Example: Turbine Pressure Drop 358

      7.7.4 Types of Turbine Stages 358

7.8 Axial Flow Compressor and Turbine Performance Maps 362

      7.8.1 General Aerodynamic Considerations 362

      7.8.2 Turbine Performance Maps 364

      7.8.3 Compressor Performance Maps 368

7.9 Three-Dimensional Considerations in Axial Flow Turbomachines 372

7.10 Summary 374

7.11 Nomenclature 375

      7.11.1 Subscripts 376

      7.11.2 Superscripts 376

7.12 Exercises 377

CHAPTER 8 Blade Element Theory for Axial Flow Turbomachines 383

8.1 Introduction to Flows Through Blade Passages 384

8.2 Cascades 384

8.3 Straight Cascades 386

8.4 Elemental Blade Forces 392

8.5 Elemental Blade Power 395

8.6 Degree of Reaction and the Pressure Coefficient 396

8.7 Nondimensional Combined Velocity Diagram 399

8.8 Adiabatic Efficiency 401

      8.8.1 Optimum Mach Number at the Compressor Face 402

8.9 Secondary Flow Losses in the Blade Passages 404

8.10 Compressor Blade Loading and Boundary Layer Separation 407

8.11 Characteristics of the Compressor Blade Pressure Field 409

8.12 Critical Mach Number and Compressibility Effects 412

      8.12.1 Linearized Subsonic Compressible Flow 413

      8.12.2 Plane Compressible Flow 416

8.13 Turbine Blade Heat Transfer 417

      8.13.1 The Boundary Layer Over the Turbine Blade 418

      8.13.2 General Heat Transfer Effects in the Blade Passage 420

      8.13.3 Similarity Parameters in Heat Transfer 422

      8.13.4 Flat Plate Blade Heat Transfer 425

      8.13.5 Heat Transfer Mechanisms in Turbine Passages 427

      8.13.6 Turbine Blade Cooling 428

      8.13.7 Turbine Blade Materials 430

8.14 Summary 431

8.15 Nomenclature 431

      8.15.1 Subscripts 432

      8.15.2 Superscripts 433

8.16 Exercises 433

References 435

CHAPTER 9 Airbreathing Engine Performance and Component Integration 436

9.1 Introduction to Airbreathing Engine Performance 437

9.2 Turbojet and Turbofan Engine Configurations 437

      9.2.1 Single-Shaft Turbojet 438

      9.2.2 Dual-Shaft Turbojet 439

      9.2.3 Dual-Shaft Internally Mixed Turbofan 440

      9.2.4 Dual-Shaft Low Bypass Turbofan 442

      9.2.5 Dual-Shaft High Bypass Turbofan 443

      9.2.6 Dual-Shaft Afterburning Tutbojet 444

      9.2.7 Dual-Shaft High Bypass Geared Turbofan 446

9.3 Operational Requirements 446

      9.3.1 Similarity Varialels 448

      9.3.2 Example: Basic Compressor-Turbine Matching 449

9.4 Compressor-Turbine Matching-Case 1: Nozzle Minimum Area and Combustor Exit Stagnation Temperature Specified 451

9.5 Compressor-Turbine Matching-Case 2: Mass Flow Rate and Engine Speed Specified 456

9.6 Inlet-Engine Matching 459

      9.6.1 Inlet Capture Area 460

      9.6.2 Internal Compression Shock Position Effects 462

      9.6.3 External Compression Inlet Installation 464

9.7 Thrust Monitoring and Control in Flight 468

9.8 Fuel Delivery Systems 470

9.9 Thrust Reversers 473

9.10 Estimating Thrust and Specific Fuel Consumption in Cruise 475

9.11 Engine Cost 477

9.12 Loads on Turbomachinery Components 478

9.13 Summary 479

9.14 Nomenclature 479

      9.14.1 Subscripts 480

9.15 Exercises 480

References 486

CHAPTER 10 Propellers 487

10.1 Introduction to Propellers 487

10.2 Classical Control Volume Analysis 488

10.3 Blade Element Analysis 493

10.4 Propeller Charts and Empirical Methods 496

10.5 The Variable Speed Propeller 499

10.6 Propeller Performance 500

      10.6.1 Calculation of the Performance of a Specified Propeller 500

      10.6.2 A Simple Analysis for Static Thrust 502

      10.6.3 Selecting a Propeller 503

      10.6.4 Example: Propeller Selection 503

10.7 Ducted Propellers 506

10.8 Turboprops 508

      10.8.1 Example: Turboprop Performance 514

10.9 Geared Turbofans and Open Rotors 516

10.10 Summary 520

10.11 Nomenclature 520

      10.11.1 Subscripts 521

      10.11.2 Superscripts 522

10.12 Exercises 522

References 524

CHAPTER 11 Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors 525

11.1 Introduction to Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors 526

11.2 Liquid Propellant Rocket Motor Nozzles 527

      11.2.1 Conical Nozzles 529

      11.2.2 Bell Nozzles 530

      11.2.3 Plug Nozzles 531

      11.2.4 Extendable Nozzles 532

      11.2.5 Nozzle Discharge Coefficient 532

      11.2.6 Nozzle Velocity Coefficient 535

      11.2.7 Nozzle Efficiency 536

      11.2.8 Nozzle Thrust Coefficient 536

11.3 Specific Impulse 539

      11.3.1 Example: Liquid Propellant Rocket Performance 542

      11.3.2 Propellant Density and Specific Impulse 543

11.4 Liquid Propellants 545

      11.4.1 Cryogenic Propellants 547

      11.4.2 The LH2/LOX Propellant Combination 548

      11.4.3 The RP-1/LOX Propellant Combination 554

      11.4.4 The LCH4/LOX Propellant Combination 558

      11.4.5 Synthesis of Results for Representative Cryogenic Propellants 563

      11.4.6 Hypergolic Liquid Propellants 565

      11.4.7 Liquid Monopropellants 565

11.5 Combustion Chambers for Liquid Propellant Rockets 566

      11.5.1 Liquid Propellant Injectors 567

11.6 Liquid Propellant Rocket Motor Operational Considerations 568

      11.6.1 Rocket Nozzle Heat Transfer 569

      11.6.2 Nozzle and Combustion Chamber Cooling 571

      11.6.3 Combustion Instabilities 573

      11.6.4 Thrust Vector Control 574

      11.6.5 Flight Environment Effects 576

      11.6.6 Condensation in Nozzles 577

11.7 Characteristics of Real Liquid Propellant Rockets 581

      11.7.1 Liquid Propellant Rocket Engine Weight 581

11.8 Liquid Propellant Tanks and Feed Systems 583

      11.8.1 Liquid Propellant Tank Characteristics 585

      11.8.2 Liquid Propellant Tank Structural Analysis 588

      11.8.3 Example: Liquid Propellant Tank Structural Design 595

      11.8.4 Liquid Propellant Feed Systems 598

      11.8.5 Liquid Propellant Turbopump Analysis 604

      11.8.6 Turbopump Sizing Considerations 607

11.9 Summary 610

11.10 Useful Constants, Definitions, and Conversion Factors 610

11.11 Nomenclature 611

      11.11.1 Subscripts 612

      11.11.2 Superscript 613

11.12 Exercises 613

References 615

CHAPTER 12 Solid Propellant Rocket Motors 617

12.1 Introduction to Solid Propellant Rocket Motors 618

12.2 Solid Propellant Rocket Description 619

12.3 Solid Propellant Grain Configurations 620

      12.3.1 Homogeneous or Double-Base Propellant 620

      12.3.2 Heterogeneous or Composite Propellant 621

      12.3.3 Grain Cross-Sections 622

12.4 Burning Rate 623

12.5 Grain Design for Thrust-Time Tailoring 625

12.6 Combustion Chamber Pressure 626

      12.6.1 Mass Conservation Analysis 627

      12.6.2 Equilibrium Chamber Pressure 628

      12.6.3 Combustion Chamber Stability 630

      12.6.4 Propellant Performance Sensitivity 631

12.7 Erosive Burnin 633

12.8 Solid Propellant Rocket Motor Performance 635

      12.8.1 Large-Scale Solid Propellant Rocket Motors 635

      12.8.2 Dual Thrust Solid Propellant Rocket Motors 637

      12.8.3 Solid Propellant Rocket Motor Casings 638

12.9 Transient Operation of Solid Propellant Rocket Motors 639

      12.9.1 Initial Pressure Rise 639

      12.9.2 Example: Combustion Chamber Pressure Rise 640

      12.9.3 Local Equilibrium Pressure Variation and Burn-out Time 641

      12.9.4 Final Pressure Drop 643

      12.9.5 Example: Tubular Grain Solid Propellant Rocket Motor Design 644

12.10 Nozzle Heat Transfer 645

      12.10.1 Heat Sink Nozzles 646

      12.10.2 Melting Ablator Nozzles with Constant Heat Transfer 649

      12.10.3 Mass Transfer for Nozzle Thermal Protection 650

12.11 Solid Propellant Rocket Motor Sizing 652

      12.11.1 Example: Optimal Sizing of a Solid Propellant Rocket Motor 658

12.12 Hybrid Rockets 660

      12.12.1 Hybrid Rocket Operation 660

      12.12.2 Hybrid Rocket Characteristics 662

      12.12.3 Example: Hybrid Rocket Motor Fuel Grain Design 663

12.13 Summary 663

12.14 Nomenclature 664

      12.14.1 Subscripts 665

      12.14.2 Superscripts 666

12.15 Exercises 666

References 668

CHAPTER 13 Space Propulsion 669

13.1 Introduction to Space Propulsion 670

13.2 Space Propulsion Systems 671

13.3 Electric Propulsion Systems 673

13.4 Electrothermal Propulsion Devices 675

      13.4.1 Resistojets 678

      13.4.2 Arcjets 678

      13.4.3 RF and Microwave Excited Jets 680

13.5 Electrostatic Propulsion Devices 680

      13.5.1 One-Dimensional Electrostatic Thruster 680

      13.5.2 Ion Stream Speed 681

      13.5.3 Electric Field and Ion Current 682

      13.5.4 Performance Implications 683

      13.5.5 Surface Contact Source of Ions 684

      13.5.6 Example: Surface Contact Source Dimensions 685

      13.5.7 Electron Bombardment Source of Ions 686

      13.5.8 The Hall Thruster 687

      13.5.9 An Ion Rocket for a Deep Space Mission 688

13.6 Electromagnetic Propulsion Devices 689

      13.6.1 Pulsed Plasma Thrusters 690

13.7 Nuclear Propulsion Devices 692

      13.7.1 Nuclear Rocket Engine Configuration 693

      13.7.2 Exhaust Velocity 695

      13.7.3 Solid Core Reactors 696

      13.7.4 Particle Bed Reactors 699

      13.7.5 Propellant Feed Systems 700

      13.7.6 Comparison of Nuclear and Chemical Rockets 700

      13.7.7 Gas Core Nuclear Rockets 702

      13.7.8 Base Bleed Nuclear Fuel Confinement 703

      13.7.9 Nuclear Ramjet for Planetary Exploration 703

13.8 Summary 707

13.9 Nomenclature 708

      13.9.1 Subscripts 709

13.10 Exercises 709

References 710

APPENDIX A Shock Waves, Expansions, Tables and Charts 712

APPENDIX B Properties of Hydrocarbon Fuel Combustion 730

APPENDIX C Earth's Atmosphere 736

APPENDIX D Boost Phase and Staging of Rockets 747

APPENDIX E Safety, Reliability, and Risk Assessment 761

APPENDIX F Aircraft Performance 779

APPENDIX G Thermodynamic Properties of Selected Species 796

APPENDIX H Units and Conversion Factors 812

Index 815

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