Climatology is the scientific study of climates, which is defined as the mean weather conditions over a period of time. A branch of study within atmospheric sciences, it also takes into account the variables and averages of short-term and long-term weather conditions. Climatology is different than meteorology and can be divided into different areas of study. Climate is one of the most important factors in our environment and we need to have predictions about its behavior to know how safe we are. It effects our food sources, our health and our homes. It would be foolish to be this scientifically and technologically advanced and not take full advantage of exploring climate. Quite frankly it would be irrational. The modern study of climatology, particularly dynamic climatology, relies on the understanding of climate indices. Climate indices are large-scale weather patterns that are consistent and measureable.

List of abbreviations xiii

Preface xv

1 ATMOSPHERE: AN INTRODUCTION

Introduction 1

Pressure 3

Atmospheric Escape 4

      Thermal escape mechanisms 4

      Significance of Solar Winds 4

      Comparison of non-Thermal loss Processes Based on Planet and Particle Mass 5

      Phenomena of non-thermal Loss Processes on Moons with Atmospheres 6

      Impact Erosion 6

      Sequestration 7

      Dominant Atmospheric Escape and Loss Processes on Earth 7

Terrain 8

Composition 8

Structure 9

      Earth 9

      Others 10

      In the Solar System 10

      Outside the solar System 11

Circulation 11

      Latitudinal Circulation Features 12

      Ferrel Cell 14

      Longitudinal Circulation Features 15

Importance 18

Cryosphere 18

Structure 18

      Snow 20

      Sea ice 21

      Lake ice and river Ice 22

      Frozen Ground and Permafrost 22

      Glaclern and Ice Sheets 23

Geosphere 24

Pedosphere 25

      Lithosphere 26

      cathering and Dissolution of Minerals 26

      Biosphere 27

      Redox Conditions in Wetland Soils 28

      Atmosphere 29

      Soil in forests 29

      Soil in the Tropics 29

Biosphere 30

      Origin and use of the Term 31

      Extent of Earths Biosphere 32

      Specific Biospheres 33

      Extraterrestrial Biospheres 34

Hydrosphere 34

      Water Cycle 35

      Recharging reservoirs 36

      Specific Fresh Water Availability 36

References 36

2 CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Introduction 42

Definition 42

Climate Classification 43

      Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic 44

      Koppen 44

      Thornthwaite 48

Record 49

      Modern 49

Climate Change 50

      Climate Models 51

Air Mass 52

      Classifiionand and Notation 53

      Characteristics 53

      Movement and Fronts 54

      Modification 54

References 55

3 GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Introduction 59

Observed Temperature Changes 63

      Trends 64

      Warmest Years 65

      Greenhouse Gases 67

      Aerosols and Soot 69

      Solar Activity 71

      Variations in Earths orbit 72

Feedback 72

      Climate models 73

      Extreme Weather 75

      Sea Level rise 76

      Ecological Systems 77

      Long-term Effects 77

      Large-scale and abrupt Impacts 78

Observed And Expected Effects On Social Systems 78

      Habitat inundation 79

      Economy 79

      Infrastructure 79

      Mitigation 80

      Adaptation 80

      Climate Engineering 80

Discourse About Global Warming 81

      Political Discussion 81

      Scientific Discussion 81

      Discussion by the Public and in Popular Media 82

      Surveys of Public Opinion 83

Etymology 84

      Long-Term Effects of Global Warming 85

      Ice Loss and sea level rise 86

      Clathrate Decomposition 88

      Long-term Return to Equilibrium 89

References 89

4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND MITIGATION

Introduction 111

      Terminology 112

      Causes 112

      Volcanism 118

      Human Influences 120

      Physical Evidence. 121

      Temperature Measurements and Proxies 122

      Historical and Archaeological Evidence 122

      Glaciers 123

      Arctic Sea Ice Loss 123

      Vegetation 124

      Pollen analysis 124

      Cloud cover and precipitation 125

      Dendroclimatology 126

      Ice cores 126

      Animals 126

      Sea level Change 126

Climate Change mitigation 127

      Greenhouse gas concentrations and Stabilization 130

      Methods and Means 133

      Alternative Energy sources 134

      Nuclear Power 138

      Coal to Gas Fuel Switching 142

      Fossil fuel Phase-out: Carbon Neutral and Negative Fuels 144

      Demand Side management 145

      Costs and Benefits 156

      Governmental and Intergovernmental Action 159

      Non-governmental approaches 165

      Legal Action 166

Environmental Migrant 167

      Drought refugees from Oklahoma camping by the roadside, California, 1936 167

      Definition and Concept 167

      Type 168

      Enumeration 168

      Popular Culture 172

      Abrupt Climate Change 173

      Current situation 173

      Regional changes 174

      Ocean Effects 174

      Past Events 176

Abrupt Climate Shifts Since 1976 177

      Consequential Effects 178

References 179

5 CLIMATE MODELS

Introduction 197

Box Models 198

Zero-Dimensional Models 199

Radiative-Convective Models 200

Higher-Dimension Models 200

Gcms( Global Climate Models or General Circulation Models ) 201

Research and Development 201

General Circulation Model 202

      Terminology 202

      Atmospheric and oceanic models 202

      Trends 203

      Structure 203

      Relation to Weather Forecasting 210

      Computations 211

      Climate Models 211

      Radiative-Convective Models(RCM) 211

      Tropical Cyclone Forecast Model 212

      Statistical Guidance 213

      Dynamical guidance 214

      Consensus Methods 217

      Ensemble methods 218

      Sunspot theory 219

      Hurricane Forecast Model Accuracy 219

References 219

6 REGIONAL CLIMATOLOGY

Tropical Climate 223

Subtypes 224

      Tropical Rainforest Climate 224

      Tropical Monsoon Climate 225

      Tropical Wet and Dry Climate 227

      Exceptions 227

Temperate climate 227

      Zones and Climate 228

Polar climate 228

      Subtypes 229

      Locations 229

Highland 232

      Highlands Worldwide 232

      Other Worlds 233

References 233

7 WEATHER FORECASTING

Introduction 235

History 236

      Ancient forecasting 236

      Modern Methods 237

      Numerical prediction 239

      Broadcasts 240

Techniques 243

      Persistence 243

      Use of a barometer 243

      Looking at the sky 244

      Nowcasting 244

      Use of forecast models 244

      Analog technique 245

Quality Assessment 245

      Severe Weather Alerts and Advisories 246

      Low Temperature Forecast 246

Specialist Forecasting 246

      Air Traffic 246

      Marine 247

      Agriculture 247

      Forestry 248

      Utility Companies 248

      Other Commercial Companies 249

      Military Applications 249

      Royal air Force 249

      United States Armed Forces 249

References 250

8 PALEOCLIMATOLOGY

Introduction 257

      Reconstructing ancient Climates 258

      Sedimentary facies 260

      Notable climate events in Earth history 261

      History of the Atmosphere 261

      Climate During Geological Ages 263

      Climate forcings 265

References 267

Index 269

Daniel completed his MSc in Environmental Science from the University of the Philippines Diliman in 2016. His primary interests are ecological monitoring using remote sensing and the effects of climate variability on vegetation. He is engaged in the University of the Philippines as a Senior Science Research Specialist working on LiDAR mapping of agricultural resources.

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