In this book, Drs. Behera and Varma highlight how a politically, economically and environmentally volatile world is immensely in need of energy security as an increasingly important consideration. Before going ahead in detail on green fuel and its application for getting sustainable renewable energy, the authors have defined energy security in its true sense. In this respect, the past and present global energy scenario and need for additional energy budget to supplement the deficit for shortterm and long-term energy requirements for human activity are discussed.
In addition, it is also explained how the security of global energy supplies is in great dilemma as oil and gas reserves are under the direct control of a small group of

1 Energy Security 1

1.1 Introduction 1

      1.1.1 Renewable Energy 2

      1.1.2 Non-renewable Energy 4

1.2 What Is Energy Security? 5

1.3 Genesis of Energy Security Feeling 7

1.4 Causes of Energy Crisis 11

      1.4.1 Geological Risks and Overconsumption 12

      1.4.2 Population and Energy Consumption 13

      1.4.3 Technical Risks and Deplorable Infrastructure 14

      1.4.4 Unawareness of Renewable Energy 16

      1.4.5 Impediment in Developing Power Plants 16

      1.4.6 Gas Shortage for Power Sector 17

      1.4.7 Negligence in Proper Use of Energy 17

      1.4.8 Inefficiency in Energy Supply Chain 17

      1.4.9 Natural Disaster 18

      1.4.10 Wars and Attacks 18

      1.4.11 Natural Resource Depletion 18

      1.4.12 Economic Growth 18

      1.4.13 Political Instability 19

      1.4.14 Miscellaneous Factors 19

      1.4.15 Cybersecurity 20

1.5 Possible Solutions of the Energy Crisis 20

      1.5.1 Move Towards Renewable Resources 20

      1.5.2 Buy Energy-Efficient Products 20

      1.5.3 Lighting Controls 20

      1.5.4 Easier Grid Access 21

      1.5.5 Energy Simulation 21

      1.5.6 Perform Energy Audit 21

      1.5.7 Common Stand on Climate Change 21

      1.5.8 Biowaste Recycling for Methanol Production 21

      1.5.9 Use of “Flex-Fuel” in Automobiles 22

1.6 Quantifying Energy Security 22

      1.6.1 Model of Short-Term Energy Security (MOSES) 23

      1.6.2 The Long-Term Measures in Energy Security (MOLES) 25

      1.6.3 Energy Security Policy 27

      1.6.4 Global Energy Security Status 41

      1.7 Fossil Fuels vs. Renewable Energy (RE) 42

      1.7.1 Energy Resources 43

      1.7.2 Comparing Cost: Fossil Fuels vs. Renewable Energy 45

      1.7.3 Advantage and Disadvantage 49

1.8 Energy Supply Chain Management (ESCM) 51

      1.8.1 Electricity 51

      1.8.2 Natural Gas Supply Chain Management (NGSM) 53

      1.8.3 Petrol Supply Chain Management 58

1.9 Green Energy as Reliable and Resilient Energy System 60

      1.9.1 Integration of Biorefinery 61

      1.9.2 Resilience of Microbial Fuel Cell 62

      1.9.3 Resilience of Microalgae 63

1.10 World Towards Sustainable Energy 64

      1.10.1 Solar Power 64

      1.10.2 Wind Energy 65

      1.10.3 Bioenergy 65

1.11 Renewable Energy as Eco-friendly 66

      1.11.1 Biodiesel as Eco-friendly 67

      1.11.2 Solar Energy as Eco-friendly 68

      1.11.3 Wind Power as Eco-friendly 69

1.12 International Organizations for Energy 70

      1.12.1 International Energy Agency (IEA) 70

      1.12.2 Energy Regulators Regional Association (ERRA) 70

      1.12.3 Council of European Energy Regulators (CEER) 71

      1.12.4 ASEAN Energy Regulators’ Network (AERN) 71

      1.12.5 International Energy Regulation Network (IERN) 72

      1.12.6 International Confederation of Energy Regulators (ICER) 72

      1.12.7 Interstate Oil and Gas Transportation to Europe (INOGATE) 72

      1.12.8 Energy Management Working Group (EMWG) 73

      1.12.9 Association of Energy Engineers 73

      1.12.10 World Energy Council 74

      References 74

2 Gasoline-Like Biofuel 79

2.1 Generations of Biofuels 82

      2.1.1 First-Generation Biofuels 82

      2.1.2 Second-Generation Biofuels 86

      2.1.3 Third-Generation of Biofuels 87

      2.1.4 Fourth-Generation Biofuels 88

2.2 Biological Process for Biomass Liquefaction 89

      2.2.1 Sugars to Ethanol Processing 89

      2.2.2 Starch to Ethanol 102

      2.2.3 Lignocellulosic Biomass to Ethanol 109

2.3 Commercialization of Bioethanol from Biomass 146

References 149

3 Diesel-Like Biofuels 159

3.1 Biodiesel 159

      3.1.1 Chemistry of Diesel and Biodiesel 160

      3.1.2 Biodiesel Manufacturing Process 163

      3.1.3 Cetane Rating 173

      3.1.4 Chemical Composition of Biodiesel 175

      3.1.5 Raw Materials 176

3.2 Algal Biodiesel 179

      3.2.1 Advantages of Algal Biofuel 181

      3.2.2 Algae Biodiesel Manufacturers 184

      3.2.3 Production Process 187

3.3 Green Diesel 198

      3.3.1 Green Diesel Manufacturing Process 198

      3.3.2 Green Diesel Commercialization 201

      References 201

4 Green Gaseous Fuel Technology 205

4.1 Biogas Generation Technology 206

      4.1.1 Biogas Modules 208

      4.1.2 Biogas Generation Systems 215

      4.1.3 Biogas Use 229

      4.1.4 Biogas Commercialization 232

      4.1.5 Biogas Project Finance 235

      4.1.6 Plant Safety 235

4.2 Biomethane 238

      4.2.1 Biogas, Biomethane and Natural Gas 238

      4.2.2 Biomethane Applications 239

      4.2.3 Heat Generation 240

      4.2.4 Purification and Upgrading of Biogas 241

4.3 Biohydrogen as an Energy Carrier 243

      4.3.1 Biological Hydrogen Production 245

      4.3.2 Pathways to Commercialization 255

      4.3.3 Hydrogen Purification 258

      References 261

5 Bioelectricity Generation 265

5.1 Microbial Fuel Cell 266

      5.1.1 Nature 267

      5.1.2 Types of Microbes Used in MFC 267

      5.1.3 Function of Microorganisms 269

      5.1.4 Mediated vs. Unmediated MFC 271

5.2 Constituents of MFC 282

      5.2.1 Types of Anode Used in MFC 282

      5.2.2 Types of Cathode Used in MFC 284

      5.2.3 Nature of Semipermeable Membrane 284

5.3 Basic Principle of Operation 286

5.4 Application 286

      5.4.1 Generation of Bioelectricity 290

      5.4.2 Biohydrogen Production 291

      5.4.3 Wastewater Treatment in MFC 292

      5.4.4 Application of MFCs in Biosensor 294

      References 294

6 Thermal Conversions of Biomass 301

6.1 Combustion 302

      6.1.1 Principles of Combustion 302

      6.1.2 Feedstocks for Biomass Combustion 303

      6.1.3 Utilizing Biomass as an Energy Source 305

      6.1.4 Caloric Value: Biomass vs. Fossil Fuels 306

      6.1.5 Biomass Processing for Combustion 307

      6.1.6 Resizing Biomass 311

      6.1.7 Collection Systems for Agricultural Biomass 311

      6.1.8 Transforming Biomass 313

      6.1.9 Biomass Cofiring 313

      6.1.10 Pros and Cons 314

6.2 Biomass Gasification 315

      6.2.1 Biomass Gasification Process Steps 317

      6.2.2 Types of Gasifiers 318

      6.2.3 Gasification Chemistry and Process 325

      6.2.4 Gasification Process Types 328

      6.2.5 Advantages of Biomass Gasification Technologies 339

      6.2.6 Commercialization of Biomass Gasifier 340

6.3 Pyrolysis 340

      6.3.1 Basic Concept 340

      6.3.2 Pyrolysis History 344

      6.3.3 Characteristics of Feedstocks 346

      6.3.4 Pyrolysis Products vs. Biomass Composition 346

      6.3.5 Types of Pyrolysis Process 348

      6.3.6 Pyrolysis Reactors 351

      6.3.7 Advantages of Pyrolysis 351

      6.3.8 Applications 352

      6.3.9 Why Pyrolysis Market Is on Demand 352

6.4 Biomass Liquefaction 354

      6.4.1 History 354

      6.4.2 Hydrothermal Liquefaction 356

      6.4.3 Biorefinery for Biomass Liquefaction 364

      References 366

      Index 371

Basanta Kumara Behera has been a professor of biotechnology at three distinguished Indian universities, where he had been regularly associated with teaching and research at postgraduate-level courses on the topics related to bioenergy management and biomass processing technology since 1978. In 2009, he joined an MNS company as adviser for speciality chemicals production and drug design through microbial process technology. He is associated with national and international reputed companies as technical adviser for the production of biopharmaceuticals under cGMP norms. Dr. Behera has authored books published by CRC Press, USA (in press); Springer-Verlag, Germany; Capital Publishing Company, India; and CABI International, UK (in press).PA\Ajit Varma is distinguished scientist and professor of eminence at Amity Institute of Microbial Technology and vice chairman at Amity Science, Technology & Innovation Foundation (ASTIF), Amity University, Uttar Pradesh. Prior to this, he served as professor of microbial technology at the School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University till 2004. Over 290 research articles have been contributed by him in national and international journals. He has the credit of publishing 38 books in the area of microbial technology by Academic Press; CRC Press, USA;

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