The name ‘controlled atmosphere storage’ replaced the archaic term ‘gas storage’ and is synonymous with the term ‘modified atmosphere storage’, though the latter is little used and usually only specifically in modified atmosphere packaging. Modified atmosphere packaging refers to using packaging material (usually plastic film) that is partially permeable to gases and that uses the metabolism of the product it contains to change the atmosphere to one that is more beneficial for storage. Another way of changing the atmosphere is to coat the individual fruit or vegetable in such a way that gas exchange is restricted, resulting in a more beneficial atmosphere in the cells and intercellular spaces.
For almost a century an enormous volume of literature has been published on the subject of controlled atmosphere storage of fresh fruits and vegetables. It would be the work of a lifetime to begin to do those results justice in presenting a comprehensive and focused view, interpretation and digest for its application in commercial practice. Such a review is in demand to enable those engaged in the commerce of fruits and vegetables to be able to utilize this technology and reap its benefits in terms of the reduction of postharvest losses and maintenance of their nutritive value and organoleptic characteristics. The potential use of controlled atmosphere storage as an alternative to the application of preservation and pesticide chemicals is of continuing interest.
In order to facilitate the task of reviewing the literature we have had to rely on a combination of reviewing original publications as well as consulting reviews and technical books. The latter are not always entirely satisfactory, since they may not give their source of information and we may have inadvertently quoted the same work more than once. Much reliance has been made on conference proceedings, especially the International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference held every few years, the European Co-operation in the Field of Scientific and Technical Research (COST 94) which held postharvest meetings throughout Europe between 1992 and 1995, the International Society for Horticultural Science’s regular international conferences and the CAB Abstracts.
Different views exist on the usefulness of controlled atmosphere storage. Blythman (1996) described controlled atmosphere storage as a system that ‘amounts to deception’ from the consumer’s point of view. The reason behind this assertion seems to be that the consumer thinks that the fruits and vegetables that they purchase are fresh and that controlled atmosphere storage technology ‘bestows a counterfeit freshness’. Also she claimed that storage may change produce in a detrimental way and cited changes in texture of apples, ‘potatoes that seem watery and fall apart when cooked and bananas that have no flavour’. Some of these contentions are true and need addressing, but others are oversimplifications of the facts. Another view was expressed by David Sainsbury in 1995 and reported in the press as: ‘These techniques [controlled atmosphere storage], could halve the cost of fruit to the customer. It also extends the season of availability, making good eating-quality fruit available for extended periods at reasonable costs.’
The purpose of this book is primarily to help the fresh produce industry in storage and transport of fruit and vegetables, but it also provides an easily accessible reference source for those studying agriculture, horticulture, food science and technology and food marketing. In addition it will be useful to researchers in this area, giving an overview of our present knowledge of controlled atmosphere storage that will indicate areas where there is a need for further research.

About the Authors xi

Preface xiii

Acknowledgements xv

Glossary xvii

Units of Measurement xix

Abbreviations xxi

1 Introduction 1

History of the Effects of Gases on Crops 1

2 Harvest and Pre-harvest Factors 14

Organic Production 15

Fertilizers 15

Climate and Weather 16

Fungicides 16

Water Relation 18

Harvest Maturity 19

Chemical Sprays 21

3 Effects and Interactions 25

Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen Damage 26

High Oxygen Storage 31

Carbon Dioxide Shock Treatment 32

Total Nitrogen or High Nitrogen Storage 33

Ethylene 34

Carbon Monoxide 36

Temperature 36

Humidity 36

Delayed CA Storage 37

Interrupted CA Storage 38

Residual Effects of CA Storage 38

4 Quality 40

Flavour 40

Volatile Compounds 43

Acidity 44

Nutrition 45

5 Physiology, Ripening and Genetics 50

Respiration Rate 50

Fruit Ripening 55

Genetics 58

6 Pests, Diseases and Disorders 64

Physiological Disorders 64

Fungal Diseases 70

Bacterial Diseases 71

Insects 72

7 Pre-storage Treatments 75

High Temperature 75

Irradiation 78

Hydrogen 78

Waxing and Polishing 79

Carboxymethyl Cellulose 80

Starch 82

Carrageenan 83

Chitosan 83

Essential Oils 83

Alginate 84

Salicylic Acid 85

Trehalose 85

Gum Arabic 86

Zein 86

Methyl Jasmonate 87

Gibberellins 87

Bacteria 88

Daminozide 88

1-Methylcyclopropene 88

8 CA Technology 103

Temperature Control 107

Humidity Control 108

Gas Control Equipment 109

Plastic Tents and Membranes 115

Ripening Rooms 119

Modelling 122

Safety 123

9 Dynamic CA Storage 125

History of DCA 125

Respiratory Quotient 127

Ethanol 131

Chlorophyll Fluorescence 133

Comparison of Ethanol, RQ and CF Systems 135

Current Situation 139

Future Trends 141

10 Hyperbaric and High-oxygen Storage 143

Technology 144

Effects of High Pressure 144

Effects on Selected Crops 150

11 Hypobaric and Low-oxygen Storage 153

Technology 155

Adding Carbon Dioxide 158

Pre-storage Treatments 159

Effects on Physiology, Quality and Deterioration 159

Effects on Selected Crops 163

12 Recommended CA Conditions 178

Apple 178

Apricot 190

Apricot, Japanese 191

Artichoke, Globe 191

Artichoke, Jerusalem 192

Asian Pear, Nashi 192

Asparagus 192

Aubergine, Eggplant 193

Avocado 193

Banana 195

Basil 196

Bayberry, Chinese 197

Beans, Runner 197

Beet 197

Blackberry 197

Blackcurrant 198

Blueberry, Bilberry, Whortleberry 198

Breadfruit 199

Broccoli, Sprouting 199

Brussels Sprouts 201

Butter Bean, Lima Bean 202

Cabbage 202

Cactus Pear, Prickly Pear, Tuna, Opuntia 204

Capsicum, Sweet Pepper, Bell Pepper 204

Carambola, Star Fruit 205

Carrot 205

Cassava, Tapioca, Manioc, Yuca 205

Cauliflower 205

Celeriac, Turnip-rooted Celery 206

Celery 207

Cherimoya 208

Cherry, Sour 208

Cherry, Sweet 208

Chestnut, Chinese 210

Chestnut, Sweet 210

Chicory, Endive, Belgian Endive, Escarole, Radicchio, Witloof Chicory 211

Chillies 211

Chinese Cabbage 211

Citrus Hybrids 212

Cranberry 212

Cucumber 212

Durian 213

Feijoa 213

Fig 213

Garlic 214

Gooseberry 214

Grape 215

Grapefruit, Pummelo 216

Guava 216

Horseradish 217

Jujube 217

Kiwifruit 217

Kohlrabi 218

Lanzones, Langsat 218

Leek 218

Lemon 219

Lettuce 219

Lime 219

Litchi, Lychee 219

Mamey 220

Mandarin, Satsuma 220

Mango 221

Mangosteen 224

Medlar 225

Melon 225

Melon, Bitter 225

Mushroom 225

Mushroom, Cardoncello 226

Mushroom, Oyster 226

Mushroom, Shiitake 226

Natsudaidai 226

Nectarine 227

Okra 227

Olive 228

Onion 228

Orange 230

Pak Choi 231

Papaya 231

Passionfruit 232

Peach 232

Pear 233

Pea, Garden Pea, Mangetout, Snow Pea, Sugar Pea 236

Pepino 236

Persimmon 236

Pineapple 237

Plantain 238

Plum 238

Pomegranate 239

Potato 239

Quince 241

Radish 242

Rambutan 242

Raspberry 242

Redcurrant 243

Rocket 244

Roseapple 244

Salsify 244

Sapodilla 244

Soursop 244

Spinach 245

Spring onion 245

Squash 245

Strawberry 246

Swede 247

Sweetcorn, Baby Corn 248

Sweet Potato 248

Sweetsop, Sugar Apple 248

Tomato 248

Turnip 250

Turnip-rooted Parsley 250

Watermelon 250

Yam 250

13 Transport 251

Sea Freight 253

CA Transport Technology 256

Hypobaric Containers 261

MA Packaging 261

CA Transport Trials and Case Studies 263

14 MA Packaging 274

Film Types 275

Biodegradable MA Packaging 278

Film Permeability 280

Gas Flushing 281

Quantity of Product 282

Perforation 282

Adjustable Diffusion Leak 283

Absorbents 283

Vapour Generation 288

Humidity 292

Temperature 293

Shrink-wrapping 293

Vacuum Packing 293

Minimal Processing 294

Equilibrium Modified Atmosphere Packaging 295

Modelling 295

Safety 297

Some MA Packaging Recommendations 299

References 321

Index 405

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