This book is about development of biodegradable polymers alternatives, which are required to save our reserves of fossil fuels and to save our mother earth from further environmental degradation. This book deals with the family of biodegradable polymers which have to be prepared with a novel idea of studying polymers with a “Cradle to Grave” approach. It touches upon basic materials, which can be potential materials to prepare biodegradable polymers with their basic structures, properties, behaviour and limitations known till date. This book will help students in understanding various characterization techniques which can be used for the study of identification of functional group, structural properties, thermal behaviour, crystallographic nature, mechanical properties and morphological properties through FTIR–ATR for physico chemical properties, DSC & TGA for thermal studies, XRD for crystallographic studies & SEM for morphological studies. It also provides an overview of various testing methods to analyse biodegradability including standard guideline for evaluation of biodegradation and compostability of polymer material through ASTM/ISO/EN standard methods.

1. Introduction 1–28

1.0 Introduction 3

1.1 Background 5

1.2 Definitions 6

1.3 Developmental Need 9

1.4 Recycling 10

1.5 Process Compatibilities 11

1.6 Need of Development of Biodegradable Polymer 11

1.7 Challenge in Present Scenario 11

1.8 Manufacturers of Biodegradable Polymers as on Date 12

1.9 Commercial Biodegradable Products of Starch 14

1.10 Applications of Biodegradable Polymer 15

1.11 Objectives for Development 19

1.12 Current Status in India 20

1.13 Current Status in World 23

1.14 Conclusion 24 1.15 References 25

2. Classification of Biodegradable Polymers 29–50

2.0 Categories of Polymers 31

2.1 Non-degradable and Non-renewable Polymers 32

2.2 Degradable and Non-renewable Polymers 33

2.3 Biodegradable and Non-renewable Polymers 34

2.4 Biodegradable and Renewable Polymers 36

2.5 Categories of Biodegradable Polymers 37

2.6 Details of Different Categories Based Biodegradable Polymers 40

2.7 References 49

3. Materials and Their Structures 51–86

3.0 Biodegradable Polymer - Materials and their Structures 53

3.1 Polysaccharides 53

      3.1.1 Starch 53

      3.1.2 Cellulose 62

      3.1.3 Chitin and Chitosan 64

3.2 Protein- Based 65

3.3 Bacterial/Microbial Polyesters 67

3.4 Poly (Glycolic Acid) 68

3.5 Synthetic Polyester 68

      3.5.1 Polycaprolactone 68

      3.5.2 Poly (Lactic Acid) 69

3.6 Poly (Vinyl Alcohol) 72

3.7 Starch/Poly (Vinyl Alcohol) (PVA) Based Biodegradable Polymers 73

3.8 Starch/Poly (Epsilon-Caprolactone) (PCL) Based Biodegradable Polymers 74

3.9 Starch/Poly (D, L-Lactic Acid) (PLA) Based Biodegradable Polymers 75

3.10 Starch / Poly-hydroxy-alkanoates (PHA) Based Biodegradable Polymers 75

3.11 Starch/Poly (Butylenes Succinate-Co-Butylene Adipate) (PBSA) Based Biodegradable Polymers 78

3.12 Starch with Olefi ns Vinyl Derivatives 78

3.13 Starch and Olefins with Acrylate Derivatives 80

3.14 Starch and Olefins with Anhydride Group 80

3.15 References 81

4. Innovation Till Date 87–136

4.0 Research in the Field of Biodegradable Polymers as on Date 89

4.1 References 122

5. Characterization Techniques 137–174

5.0 Characterization Techniques 139

5.1 Physico-chemical Analysis 139

      5.1.1 FTIR: ATR Fourier Transform Infrared: Attenuated Total Refl ectance: Spectroscopy 139

5.2 Thermal Analysis 144

      5.2.1 DSC: Differential Scanning Calorimetery 144

      5.2.2 TGA: Thermo Gravimetric Analysis 151

      5.2.3 Thermo Mechancial Analyser (TMA) 155

      5.2.4 Dynamic Mechanical Analyser (DMA) 156

5.3 Crystallographic Study 160

      5.3.1 XRD: X-Ray Diffraction 160

5.4 Morphology Analysis 163

      5.4.1 SEM: Scanning Electron Microscopy 163

5.5 Water Absorption Analysis 167

5.6 Physico-mechanical Properties 167

      5.6.1 Tensile Strength 167

      5.6.2 Tear Strength 169

      5.6.3 Burst Strength 169

5.7 Degradation Study 170

      5.7.1 Weight Loss Study 170

      5.7.2 Carbonyl Index Study 171

      5.7.3 Mechanical Properties After Degradation 171

      5.7.4 Morphology Study After Degradation 172

5.8 References 172

6. Biodegradation 175–208

6.0 Biodegradation 177

6.1 Degradation Process of Bio-degradable Polymer 178

6.2 Factors Affecting Biodegradability 180

6.3 International Standard Methods for Bio-degradability Testing 181

6.4 Methods of Biodegradation 184

      6.4.1 Soil Burial 186

      6.4.2 Composting 186

6.5 Definition of Composting 188

      6.5.1 According to ASTM Standards 188

      6.5.2 According to ISO Draft Standards 188

      6.5.3 According to British Standards 188

      6.5.4 According to US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) 189

6.6 Factors Affecting Composting Process 189

6.7 Phases of Composting Process 190

6.8 An International Standard Related to Composting 193

      6.8.1 ASTM Standards Related to Composting 193

      6.8.2 ISO Standards Related to Composting 194

      6.8.3 EN Standard Related to Composting 195

6.9 Methods of Biodegradability Testing by Composting 196

      6.9.1 ISO 14855-1 and 2 196

6.10 Methods of Bio-degradation Testing 202

6.11 Biodegradation Supporting Environments 203

6.12 Duration of Bio-degradation and Risk of their Entry into Nature 204

6.13 Biodegradation Measurement Procedures 205

6.14 References 206

Glossary 209–216

Index 217–220

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