A nanocomposite is a material composed of at least two immiscible phases, separated from one another by interface region. The material must contain the nanometer scale in at least one dimension in which the major component is called matrix, in which fillers are dispersed. Thus a matrix of nanocomposite is not only a continual phase, but it also stabilizes and significantly interacts with the nanomaterial. In this regard, for a nanocomposite matrix, polymers would be the ideal alternative. Polymers are mega or gigantic molecules made up of inorganic and mostly organic ingredients that are covalently joined between a huge number of tiny and basic repeating units. These repeating units are made up of simple molecules called monomers, and the process of converting them to polymers is known as polymerization. Additionally, the number of these kinds of units that repeat themselves is so large that the insertion or deletion of only a few polymer chain units does not affect the polymer's final characteristics. Then, the degree of polymerization means the number of repeating units in a molecule of polymer, and by using the known molecular mass of the repeating unit, the polymer's molecular weight is determined. Moreover, polymerization methods such as addition, condensation, and rearrangement are used to make these polymers. In addition to the polymerization process, monomers are joined together by covalent bonds one after the other to produce polymers without the removal of any by-products, and the chain growth mechanism is followed. Addition of polymerization comes in a variety of forms: traditional free radical polymerization; controlled radical polymerization, like transfer of group, atom transfer radical, nitroxide mediated, reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer, and so on; and ionic polymerization, such as cationic and anionic polymerizations, and so on. Polymers derived through these synthesis methods include polypropylene, polyethylene, poly(vinyl chloride), polystyrene, poly(methyl methacrylate), polyacrylonitrile, polybutadiene, polyisoprene, polychloroprene, poly (tetrafluoroethylene), and others as homopolymers, as well as copolymers such as ethylene-propylene, poly(styrene-butadiene), poly(acrylonitrile-butadiene), and poly (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene).
Homopolymers are polymers that have only one type of repeating unit, while polymers with many types of units that repeat are referred to as copolymers. Because of the internal plasticization effect, the creation of copolymers produces both flexible and rigid polymers, but it also creates numerous enhanced characteristics from the homopolymers individually. The term "addition polymer" refers to all polymers generated by the addition polymerization technique. The step-growth process is used to create polymers in the condensation polymerization process, where polycondensation reactions occur between mutually reactive reactants, resulting in the elimination of certain tiny molecules. These polymers contain lengthy chains with linear, low-branched, high-branched, and hyperbranched structures, and their length is quite long in comparison to their diameter, with the exception of the hyperbranched ones, which have an almost spherical shape. Hyperbranched polymers are three-dimensional exceptionally fanned (dendritic) macromolecules for certain missing branches (impeccably expanded globular such macromolecules are known as dendrimers), with countless sans surface useful gatherings, moderately low arrangement and liquefy viscosities, high similarity with others, and high dis-solvability in different solvents.
Furthermore, there are mainly three types of polymeric nanomaterials available: (1) polymeric nanomaterial based on natural substance-natural polymer is a renewable resource that may be obtained from a variety of places; that could be decomposed into H20, CO2, and inorganic tiny fragments; and it is also a substance that is ecologically benign. Physical and chemical approaches can be used to synthesize natural polymers with a variety of functional groups, or modified to create a novel material utilizing developing nanoscience. Natural polymer compounds that are frequently utilized nowadays include starch, chitosan, cellulose, alginate, chondroitin sulfate, and hyaluronic acid. (2) Biosynthesized polymer-based nanomaterial-enzyme hydrolysis is used to produce biosynthesized polymers (using microbial enzymes). Microbial polyesters and polysaccharides are found in these substances. Poly-hydroxybutyrate, poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate), biofiber bundle, polyamino acid, and more examples are available. (3) Synthetic polymer-based nanomaterials-chemically synthesized polymer materials, such as PLGA, polyurethane, poly(methyl methacrylate), PLA, polyester, silicone rubber, polyvinylpyrrolidone, and polyvinyl alcohol. Since synthetic polymeric nanomaterials are well known for their unique properties (such as large surface-area-to-volume ratio, long-term stability, and low weight), a huge number of research is being carried out for the synthesis of such a material through various methods.
This book aims to shed more light on the morphologies of polymer and polymer composites, also stimuli-responsive surfaces. Furthermore, to discuss various applications of polymer nanoparticles, polymer composites such as sensing, targeted drug delivery, energy storage, separation, and purification. A total of 26 chapters of this book have been divided into three parts. Part I focuses on the fundamental concepts of smart polymer nanocomposites. Part II covers the tailoring of various polymeric nanocomposites, while Part III describes various applications of polymer nanostructures and polymer nanocomposites. The topics covered in Part I deal with the fundamentals of polymer nanocomposites (Chapters 1 -3) and their nanofibers (Chapter 4), synthesis (Chapter 5), and characterization (Chapter 6). Going ahead, Part II mainly covers the various types of smart polymer nanocomposites (Chapter 7), including magnetic nanocomposites (Chapter 8), graphene/CNTs-based nanocomposites (Chapter 9), thermo-responsive nanocomposites (Chapter 10), and thermosets-containing block copolymers nanocomposites (Chapter 11). In Part III, the emerging applications of smart polymer nanocomposites have been discussed in various fields, such as drug/bioactives delivery (Chapters 12 and 21), biomedicine (Chapters 13, 17, 19, and 23), sensing (Chapter 14), food-packaging (Chapters 15 and 16), electronic textiles (Chapter 18), energy storage (Chapters 20 and 26), automobile (Chapter 22), environmental remediation (Chapter 24), and flame-retardant nanocomposites (Chapter 24).

List of contributors xix

Preface xxix

Part I Basic principles

1 Introduction to polymeric nanomaterials 3

Kuruvalli Gouthami, Lavanya Lakshminarayana, Basheerabegum Faniband, V. Veeraraghavan, Muhammad Bilal, Ram Naresh Bhargava, Luiz Fernando Romanholo Ferreira, Abbas Rahdar, Siddappa Kakkameli and Sikandar I. Mulla

      1.1 Introduction 3

      1.2 Types of polymeric nanomaterials 5

      1.2.1 Natural polymer-based nanomaterials 5

      1.2.2 Chemically synthesized polymer materials 7

      1.3 Methods for production of polymeric nanoparticles 8

      1.3.1 Solvent evaporation 8

      1.3.2 Emulsification/solvent diffusion 9

      1.3.3 Emulsification/reverse salting-out 9

      1.4 Applications of polymeric nanomaterials 10

      1.4.1 In agriculture sector 11

      1.4.2 In medical field 14

      1.5 Current and future perspective 18

      References 18

2 Polymer-based nanomaterials: an introduction 27

Gautam M. Patel, Vraj Shah, Jaydip Bhaliya, Pinaz Pathan and KM. Nikita

      2.1 Nanomaterial introduction 27

      2.1.1 Inorganic nanomaterials 27

      2.1.2 Organic nanomaterials 28

      2.1.3 Carbon-based nanomaterials 29

      2.1.4 Composite-based nanomaterials 30

      2.2 Introduction of polymeric nanomaterials: polymers, types of polymers, and polymeric nanomaterials 32

      2.3 Various synthesis techniques for polymeric nanomaterials and its characterization 36

      2.3.1 Solution casting-ultra sonication 36

      2.3.2 Melt blending 41

      2.3.3 In-situ polymerization 41

      2.3.4 Electrospinning 42

      2.3.5 Electrodeposition 42

      2.4 Applications of polymeric nanomaterial in different fields 42

      2.4.1 Coatings and paints 43

      2.4.2 Biomedical 45

      2.4.3 Sensors 47

      2.4.4 Supercapacitors 48

      2.4.5 Shape memory polymer composites 48

      2.4.6 Packaging 48

      2.5 Properties of polymeric nanomaterials 49

      2.6 Conclusion and future perspectives 50

      References 51

3 Smart polymeric nanocomposites: synthesis and applications 61

Bilal Akram, Rana Farhat, Ahmed Shjua and Javeed Akhtar

      3.1 Introduction 61

      3.2 Some novel polymeric nanocomposites 62

      3.2.1 Nanocomposite materials containing petroleum-based polymers 62

      3.2.2 Biopolymer based nanocomposites 62

      3.2.3 Sol-gel ceramics 65

      3.2.4 Fillers in elastomers 65

      3.2.5 Polymer-modified ceramics 66

      3.2.6 Polymer/silica nanocomposites 67

      3.2.7 Plasmonic polymeric nanocomposites 71

      3.2.8 Ferroelectric polymer-based nanocomposites 75

      3.3 Applications of polymeric nanocomposites 78

      3.3.1 Drug delivery applications 78

      3.3.2 Tissue engineering applications 79

      3.3.3 Photothermal applications 81

      3.3.4 Water purification applications 83

      3.3.5 Sensor applications 84

      3.3.6 Energy storage applications 85

      3.3.7 Optical applications 86

      3.4 Conclusions 87

      References 87

4 Organic and inorganic nanoparticles 93

Ehsan Ullah Rashid, Shahid Nawaz, Junaid Munawar, Aniruddha Sarker, Shahid Hussain, Hafiz M.N. Iqbal and Muhammad Bilal

      4.1 Introduction 93

      4.2 Organic nanoparticles 94

      4.3 Generally recognized as safe nanoparticles 94

      4.4 Polysaccharides-based nanoparticles 94

      4.5 Protein-based nanoparticles 95

      4.6 Lipids-based nanoparticles 96

      4.7 Micelle 96

      4.8 Liposomes 97

      4.9 Dendrimers 98

      4.10 Synthesis approaches for organic nanoparticles 99

      4.11 Self-assembly 99

      4.12 Nanoprecipitation 100

      4.13 Coordination dependent self-assembly 100

      4.14 Thin-film hydration-based self-assembly 100

      4.15 Emulsification 101

      4.16 Precipitation induced by solvent removal 101

      4.17 Solvent evaporation method 101

      4.18 Salting out 102

      4.19 Gelation of the emulsion droplets 102

      4.20 Emulsion polymerization 102

      4.21 Conventional emulsion polymerization 103

      4.22 Surfactant-free emulsion polymerization 103

      4.23 Interfacial polymerization 103

      4.24 Controlled/living radical polymerization 103

      4.25 Inorganic nanoparticles and their applications 103

      4.26 General strategies for the synthesis of uniform inorganic nanoparticles 104

      4.27 Synthesis of metallic nanoparticles by different methods 104

      4.27.1 Synthesis of gold nanoparticles 104

      4.28 Method for preparation of iron oxides nanoparticles 105

      4.29 Synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles by decomposition in organic media 105

      4.30 Synthesis of quantum dots 105

      4.31 Synthesis of carbon nanotubes by electric arc discharge method 106

      4.32 Magnetic nanoparticles 106

      4.33 Metallic inorganic nanoparticles 107

      4.34 Gold nanoparticles 108

      4.35 Silver nanoparticles 108

      4.36 Iron oxide nanoparticles 109

      4.37 Quantum dots 109

      4.38 Carbon-based nanomaterial like carbon nanotubes 111

      4.39 Conclusion 112

      References 112

      Further reading 119

5 Precipitation polymerization 121

Sabir Khan, Jaime Vega-Chacon, Gerson A. Ruiz-Cordova, Charles Pizan-Aquino, Eduardo EJ Jara-Cornejo, Sergio Espinoza Torres, C. Jacinto-Hernandez, Rosario Lopez, Maria D.P.T. Sotomayor, Gino Picasso and Javier E.L. Villa

      5.1 Precipitation polymerization 121

      5.2 Synthesis (choice of precursor), controlled radical precipitation polymerization, photopolymerization 123

      5.3 Self-stabilized precipitation polymerization 126

      5.3.1 2SP Stability mechanism of polymerization 127

      5.3.2 Nucleation and growth mechanism in 2SP polymerization 128

      5.4 Application, merits, and demerits 128

      5.5 Conclusions 132

      References 133

6 Characterization of polymeric nanoparticles 141

Sabir Khan, Ademar Wong, Shakeel Zeb, Bianca Mortari, Javier E.L. Villa and Maria D.P.T. Sotomayor

      6.1 Introduction 141

      6.2 Particle size, distribution, agglomeration, and shape: transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy 142

      6.3 Composition and structure 145

      6.4 Charge on the surface: zeta potential 149

      6.5 Crystallographic structure 151

      6.6 Discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy 151

      6.7 Differential scanning calorimetry & thermal stability 154

      6.8 Conclusion 155

      References 156

Part II Tailoring of various polymeric

7 Polymer nanocomposites: an overview 167

Idrees Khan, Ibrahim Khan, Khalid Saeed, Nisar Ali, Noor Zada, Adnan Khan, Farman Ali, Muhammad Bilal and Mohammed Salim Akhter

      7.1 Introduction 167

      7.2 Classification of polymer nanocomposites 171

      7.3 Preparation of polymer nanocomposites 171

      7.3.1 In situ polymerization 172

      7.3.2 Solution dispersion or solution mixing 172

      7.3.3 Melt extrusion 173

      7.4 Properties of polymer nanocomposites 173

      7.5 Application and advantages of polymer nano-composites 174 7.5.1 Energy and electrical applications 175

      7.5.2 Medical applications 175

      7.5.3 Environmental applications 176

      7.5.4 Sensing applications 177

      7.6 Conclusion 178

      References 178

8 Magnetic iron oxide nanocomposites: types and biomedical applications 185

Nafeesa Sarfraz, Ibrahim Khan, Idrees Khan, Muhammad Ashraf, Muhammad Ayaz, Khalid Saeed, Nisar Ali and Muhammad Bilal

      8.1 Introduction 185

      8.2 Magnetic iron oxide nanocomposites 186

      8.2.1 Magnetic iron oxides nanoparticles/polymer nanocomposites 187

      8.2.2 Magnetic iron oxides nanoparticles/silica nanocomposites 187

      8.2.3 Magnetic iron oxides nanoparticles/clay nanocomposites 189

      8.2.4 Magnetic iron oxides nanoparticles/carbon material nanocomposites 189

      8.2.5 Miscellaneous magnetic iron oxides-nanocomposites 191

      8.3 Applications of magnetic iron oxide-based nanocomposites 192

      8.3.1 Magnetic iron oxides nanocomposites in targeted drug delivery applications 192

      8.3.2 Magnetic iron oxide nanocomposites as effective therapeutic agents 193

      8.3.3 Magnetic iron oxide nanocomposites for immunotherapy applications 194

      8.3.4 Magnetic iron oxide nanocomposites for cancer treatment applications 195

      8.4 Conclusion 196

      Acknowledgment 197

      References 197

9 Graphene and carbon nanotubes-based polymer nanocomposites 205

Khalid Saeed, Idrees Khan, Ibrahim Khan, Nisar Ali, Muhammad Bilal and Mohammed Salim Akhter

      9.1 Introduction 205

      9.2 Polymer based nanocomposite 206

      9.3 Graphene 206

      9.4 Preparation of graphene-polymer nanocomposites 207

      9.5 Solution blending 207

      9.6 Melt mixing 208

      9.7 In situ polymerization 208

      9.8 Dispersion of graphene or carbon nanotubes in matrix 209

      9.8.1 Mechanical dispersion 209

      9.8.2 High-speed ball milling 210

      9.9 Non-covalent chemical modification 212

      9.10 Properties of polymer nanocomposite 212

      9.11 Applications of polymer nanocomposite 213

      9.12 Energy and electronic devices applications 214

      9.13 Biomedical applications 214

      9.14 Filtration membrane 214

      9.15 Organic pollutants remediation 215

      9.16 Conclusion 215

      References 215

10 Thermo-responsive functionalized polymeric nanocomposites 219

Atta Rasool, Muhammad Rizwan, Anees ur Rehman Qureshi, Tahir Rasheed and Muhammad Bilal

      10.1 Polymer nanocomposites 219

      10.2 Nanofiller or reinforcement material 219

      10.2.1 Organic and inorganic nanofillers 220

      10.2.2 Inert and active nanofillers 220

      10.3 Surface modification of nanofiller 220

      10.4 Smart materials 220 10.4.1 Historical evolution of small materials 221

      10.5 Stimuli and its classification 221

      10.5.1 Chemical and physical stimuli 222

      10.5.2 Endogenous and exogenous stimuli 222

      10.6 Thermo-responsive nanocomposites 222

      10.6.1 Upper critical solution temperature 222

      10.6.2 Lower critical solution temperature 222

      10.6.3 Responses stimulated by temperature stimulus 223

      10.6.4 Synthetic methods 226

      10.6.5 Graphene based thermo-responsive nanomaterials 227

      10.6.6 Thermo-responsive hydrogels 228

      10.6.7 Thermo-responsive polymeric nanomaterials 230

      10.6.8 Applications of thermo-responsive nanocomposites 230

      10.7 Conclusions 233

      References 234

11 Nanostructured thermosets containing block copolymers and carbon nanotubes 241

Muhammad Adeel, Mohsin Raza, Ghulam Yasin, Abbas Rahdar and Muhammad Bilal

      11.1 Thermosets 241

      11.2 Morphologies of thermosets containing block copolymers 242

      11.3 Influencing factors of nanostructure in the thermosets 246

      11.3.1 Composition of block copolymers 246

      11.3.2 Topologies of block copolymers 246

      11.3.3 Molecular weights and contents of block copolymers 248

      11.3.4 Curing agents and curing conditions 249

      11.4 Nanostructured thermosets containing inorganic nanofillers 251

      11.5 Properties of nanostructured thermosets 252

      11.5.1 Thermal properties 252

      11.5.2 Mechanical properties 253

      11.5.3 Surface properties 253

      11.5.4 Dielectric properties 253

      11.6 Conclusion 254

      References 255

Part III Applications of polymer nanostructures and polymer nanocomposites

12 Conductive polymers for drug and bioactives delivery 263

Pratap Basim, Srinivas Ajjarapu and Mallesh Kurakula

      12.1 Introduction 263

      12.2 Classification of conductive polymers for pharmaceutical perspective 265

      12.3 Advantages and limitations of conductive polymers 266

      12.4 Conductive polymers as a green material in drag delivery 268

      12.5 Conductive polymers as a green material in bioactive delivery 269

      12.6 Challenges in the utilization of conductive polymers for medical applications 271

      12.7 Future prospects 272

      12.8 Conclusion 273

      References 273

13 Polymer nanocomposites for biomedical applications 279

Ezzat Khan, Shahab Khan and Abdullah Khan

      13.1 General 279

      13.2 Important properties of polymer composite materials for biomedical applications 280

      13.2.1 Physiochemical and mechanical properties 280

      13.2.2 Biodegradability 280

      13.2.3 Structure of polymer composite materials 281

      13.3 Hydrogels for wound dressing and healing 282

      13.4 Antimicrobial potentials of polymer composite materials 288

      13.5 Polymer composite materials in cancer therapy 289

      13.6 Regenerative and other medicines 293

      13.7 Bone regeneration and artificial tissues 295

      13.7.1 Miscellaneous applications 297

      References 298

14 Polymer nanocomposites for sensing applications 305

Ezzat Khan

      14.1 Introduction 305

      14.1.1 Important properties of materials as sensors 305

      14.2 Applications in everyday life 306

      14.2.1 Carbon dioxide sensors 306

      14.2.2 Carbon monoxide sensors 309

      14.2.3 Nitrogen oxide sensors 312

      14.2.4 Sulfur oxides, SOx sensors 313

      14.2.5 H2S sensors 316

      14.2.6 Ammonia sensors 320

      14.2.7 Polymer nanocomposites as glucose sensors 322

      14.2.8 Miscellaneous sensors 325

      14.3 Conclusion 327

      References 327

15 Polymer nanocomposites for food-packaging applications 333

Tran Hong Thang and Tuan Anh Nguyen

      15.1 Introduction 333

      15.1.1 Food-packaging applications 333

      15.1.2 Polymer nanocomposites 335

      15.2 Smart packaging applications 339

      15.2.1 Active packaging applications 340

      15.2.2 Responsive packaging applications 344

      15.3 Conclusions and future perspective 349

      References 349

16 Prospects and challenges of polymer nanocomposites for innovative food packaging 355

Aniruddha Sarker, Shakti Chandra Mondal, Raju Ahmmed, Juwel Rana, Most. Waheda Rahman Ansary and Muhammad Bilal

      16.1 Introduction 355

      16.2 Prospect of polymer nanocomposites in food packaging 356

      16.3 Functional application of nanocomposites 358

      16.4 Classification of nanocomposites 360

      16.4.1 Classification of polymer nanocomposites 360

      16.4.2 Classification based on nanofiller dimensions 361

      16.4.3 Classification based on nanofiller types (Fig. 16.4) 362

      16.4.4 Classification based on type of polymer matrix (Fig. 16.5) 362

      16.4.5 Classification based on method of synthesis (Fig. 16.6) 363

      16.4.6 Polymer nanocomposites in food packaging application 363

      16.5 Fabrication of nanocomposites 366 16.5.1 Nanoemulsions 366

      16.5.2 Nanoliposomes 366

      16.5.3 Nanohydrogens 367

      16.5.4 Lipid nanoparticles 368

      16.6 Impact of nanopackaging on food quality and shelf life 368

      16.7 Practical challenges of nanocomposites application in food packaging 369

      16.8 Technological advancement to enhance nanocomposite for food packaging 370

      16.9 Research perspective to overcome the prevailing limitation of nanocomposites 371

      16.10 Conclusions 372

      References 372

17 Polymer nanocomposites for biomedical applications 379

Areej Shahbaz, Nazim Hussain, Tehreem Mahmood, Hafiz M.N. Iqbal, Talha Bin Emran, Pau Loke Show and Muhammad Bilal

      17.1 Introduction 379

      17.2 Polymer nanocomposite systems 380

      17.2.1 Polymer carbon-nanotubes 380

      17.2.2 Polymer graphene 382

      17.2.3 Metal composites as polymer nanocomposites 382

      17.3 Biomedical applications of graphene-based polymer nanocomposites 383

      17.4 Biomedical applications of carbon-based polymer nanocomposites 384

      17.5 Biomedical applications of metal-based polymer nanocomposites 385

      17.6 Hydroxides structures for biomedical applications 386

      17.7 Ceramic polymer composites for biomedical application 387

      17.8 Piezoelectric composites for biomedical applications 387

      17.9 Biomedical applications of nanoclays 388

      17.10 Challenges 389

      17.11 Conclusion 389

      References 390

18 Smart electronic textiles 395

Sania Naseer, Uzma Jabeen, Muhammad Aamir, Shuja Ahmed and Javeed Akhtar

      18.1 Introduction 395

      18.1.1 History 396

      18.2 Fabrication of smart textiles 397

      18.2.1 Conductive polymers 397

      18.2.2 Conductive yarns and fibers 398

      18.2.3 Conductive polymer composites 400

      18.3 Sensors- and actuators-based textiles 403

      18.3.1 Integration and networking 403

      18.3.2 Design and interactive designs 403

      18.4 Properties of smart e-textiles 403

      18.4.1 Physiochemical properties of smart e-textiles 404

      18.4.2 Electrical properties of smart e-textiles 404

      18.5 Methods of integration in smart e-textiles 405

      18.6 Applications of smart e-textiles 405

      18.6.1 Applications in medical 405

      18.6.2 Surgery 406

      18.6.3 Healthcare 406

      18.6.4 Military and defense 406

      18.6.5 Fashion 407

      18.7 Future perspective of smart e-textiles 408

      18.8 Conclusions 408

      References 409

19 Application of polymer nanocomposites in biomedicine 413

Linlu Zhao and Junqiu Liu

      19.1 Introduction 413

      19.2 Functional polymer nanocomposites 414

      19.2.1 Amphiphilic polymer nanocomposites 414

      19.2.2 Hybrid polymer nanocomposites 415

      19.2.3 Stimuli-responsive polymer nanocomposites 418

      19.3 Bioimaging applications of the functional polymer nanocomposites 420

      19.3.1 Polymer nanocomposites for fluorescent imaging 420

      19.3.2 Polymer nanocomposites for photoacoustic imaging 422

      19.4 Therapeutic applications of the functional polymer nanocomposites 423

      19.4.1 Polymer nanocomposites for photodynamic therapy 423

      19.4.2 Polymer nanocomposites for photothermal therapy 424

      19.4.3 Polymer nanocomposites for targeted drug delivery 425

      19.4.4 Polymer nanocomposites for imaging-guided theranostics 427

      19.5 Summary 428

      Reference 429

20 Polymer nanocomposites for dielectric and energy storage applications 435

Shoomaila Latif, Fatima Izhar, Muhammad Imran, Nazim Hussain and Muhammad Bilal

      20.1 Polymer nanocomposites 435

      20.2 Classification of polymers 435

      20.3 Dispersed phase in polymer nanocomposites "nanofillers" 436 20.3.1 Types of nanofillers 437

      20.4 Role of nanofillers in polymer nanocomposites 437

      20.5 Applications of polymer nanocomposites 437

      20.6 Polymer nanocomposites for dielectric applications 438

      20.6.1 Dielectric and dielectric materials 438

      20.6.2 Capacitance of dielectric materials 439

      20.6.3 Dielectric permittivity 439

      20.6.4 Types of dielectric materials 439

      20.6.5 Need for dielectric energy storage 440

      20.6.6 Breakdown theory of dielectric materials 441

      20.6.7 Mechanisms causing break down of dielectric materials 442

      20.6.8 Polarization 443

      20.6.9 Polymer nanocomposites for dielectric applications 443

      20.6.10 Multicore model 445

      20.6.11 Low density polyethylene breakdown strength 445

      20.6.12 Different types of polymer nanocomposites for enhanced dielectric properties 445

      20.6.13 Surface modification techniques for enhancing interaction between nanoparticles and polymer matrix 449

      20.6.14 Percolation theory to explain increase in dielectric permittivity 449

      20.7 Polymer nanocomposites for energy storage applications 450

      20.7.1 Lithium-ion batteries 450

      20.7.2 Li/S batteries 451

      20.7.3 Electrochemical capacitors 451

      20.8 Conclusions 452

      References 452

21 Polymer nanocomposites for drug delivery applications 461

Seema Panicker and Ahmed A. Mohamed

      21.1 Introduction 461

      21.2 Nanoparticles for drug delivery 462

      21.3 Cellular uptake of nanoparticles 462

      21.4 Polymer-ceramic nanocomposites for drug delivery applications 463

      21.5 Type of ceramic nanophases 463

      21.6 Ceramic nanocomposites as drug carriers for bone diseases 464

      21.7 Ceramic nanoparticles for cancer treatment 464

      21.8 Natural polymeric nanomaterials 465

      21.9 Polysaccharides-based polymers 465

      21.10 Protein-based polymers 466

      21.11 Co-natural polymer-based nanoparticles 466

      21.12 Synthetic nanopolymers and drug delivery applications 467

      21.13 Conclusion 468

      References 469

22 Polymeric nanocomposites for automotive application 473

Francisco Nunes de Souza Neto, Gabriella Ribeiro Ferreira, Thiago Sequinel, Glenda Biasotto, Sandra Andrea Cruz, Jessica Caroline Ferreira Gimenez, Roger Goncalves, Carlos Henrique Scuracchio, Caio Marcio Paranhos da Silva, Emerson Rodrigues Camargo, Gustavo Villela Rodrigues, Cezar Augusto da Rosa and Luiz Fernando Gorup

      22.1 Introduction 473

      22.2 Market value for polymer nanocomposites 474

      22.3 Overview of the several methods to obtain polymer-clay nanocomposites 475

      22.4 Definitions, types of matrices, and fillers 480

      22.5 Applications of composites and nanocomposites in the automobile industry 485

      22.6 General conclusions and future perspectives 493

      References 493

23 Silica-based polymer nanocomposites and their biomedical applications 507

Manahil Bakhtiar, Farman Ali, Nisar Ali, Shaukat Saeed, Mohammad Mansoob Khan, Sami Rtimi, Pau Loke Show and Muhammad Bilal

      23.1 Introduction 507

      23.1.1 Polymer-based nanocomposites 508

      23.1.2 Non-polymer-based nanocomposites 510

      23.1.3 Polymer based-nanocomposites 510

      23.1.4 Types of polymer nanocomposites 510

      23.1.5 Preparation of polymer nanocomposites 511

      23.1.6 Solution mixing 512

      23.1.7 Melt blending 512

      23.1.8 In situ polymerization 512

      23.1.9 Template synthesis 513

      23.1.10 Applications of polymer nanocomposites 513

      23.1.11 Silica-based polymer nanocomposite 516

      23.1.12 Synthesis of silica-based polymer nanocomposites 517

      23.1.13 Silica-based epoxy-nanocomposites materials 518

      23.1.14 Silica-based polymer-nanodielectric composite 518

      23.1.15 Silicon-based nanoclay polymer nanocomposites 519

      23.1.16 Silicon-based graphene polymer composites 519

      23.1.17 Recent developments in silica-based polymer nanocomposites 519

      23.1.18 Applications of silica-based polymer nanocomposites 522

      23.1.19 Catalysis or catalytic activity 522

      23.1.20 Biomedical field 523

      23.1.21 Coatings 523

      23.1.22 Proton-exchange-membranes 523

      23.1.23 Food packaging 524

      23.1.24 Biosensors 524

      23.1.25 Future prospects 525

      23.2 Conclusion 525

      References 526

24 Natural polymer-based nanostructures and their applications 529

Sumeet Malik, Adrian Khan, Nisar Ali, Abbas Rahdar, Ghulam Yasin, Shahid Hussain and Muhammad Bilal

      24.1 Introduction 529

      24.2 Classes of natural polymers 530

      24.2.1 Chitosan 531

      24.2.2 Starch 532

      24.2.3 Pectin 532

      24.2.4 Gelatin 532

      24.3 Nanostructures based on natural polymers 533

      24.4 Applications of nanostructures based on natural polymers 533

      24.5 Conclusion 535

      Acknowledgments 537

      References 537

25 Nanocomposite-based flame-retardant polyurethane foams 543

Magdalene A. Asare, Felipe M. de Souza, Vishwa D. Suthar and Ram K. Gupta

      25.1 Introduction 543

      25.2 Types of flame-retardants 547

      25.2.1 Halogenated flame retardants 548

      25.2.2 Nitrogen-based flame retardants 549

      25.2.3 Phosphorus-based flame retardants 551

      25.2.4 Inorganic and miscellaneous flame retardants 552

      25.3 Metal oxide/sulfide-based flame-retardants 552

      25.3.1 Transition metal chalcogenides 553

      25.3.2 Transition metal oxides 553

      25.3.3 Copper-based flame retardants 555

      25.3.4 Titanium oxide 556

      25.3.5 Antimony trioxide 556

      25.3.6 Zinc borate 557

      25.3.7 Zinc oxide 557

      25.3.8 Nickel oxide and derivatives 557

      25.3.9 Steel slag 558

      25.3.10 Metal oxides and hydroxides 558

      25.3.11 Silicon-based flame-retardants 559

      25.3.12 Metal-organic frameworks 562

      25.3.13 Metal-phenolic network 563

      25.4 Conclusion and outlook 564

      References 565

26 Recent development in polymer nanocomposites for energy storage applications 571

Felipe M. de Souza, Jonghyun Choi and Ram K. Gupta

      26.1 Introduction 571

      26.2 Types of energy devices and their working principle 573

      26.3 Polymer nanocomposites for supercapacitors 575

      26.3.1 Conducting polymer and carbon-based nanocomposites for supercapacitors 575

      26.3.2 Conducting polymer and transition metal oxides based nanocomposites for supercapacitors 577

      26.3.3 Conducting polymer and transition metal chalcogenide-based nanocomposites for supercapacitors 579

      26.4 Polymer nanocomposites for batteries 581

      26.4.1 Conducting polymer and carbon-based nanocomposites for batteries 581

      26.4.2 Conducting polymer and metal oxide-based nanocomposites for batteries 582

      26.4.3 Conducting polymer and chalcogenides based nanocomposites for batteries 584

      26.5 Polymer nanocomposites for flexible devices 586

      26.6 Conclusion and outlook 591

      References 592

Index 597

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