Welcome to the fascinating world of bioplastics and biocomposites! This book serves as a comprehensive guide, offering a concise yet thorough summary of the key aspects of these remarkable materials. Whether you are a novice seeking an introduction to this rapidly growing industry or an expert looking to deepen your understanding, the authors have crafted this resource to provide valuable perspectives and insights.
In recent years, there has been a significant shift towards sustainable and environmentally friendly alternatives to conventional plastics. Bioplastics and biocomposites have emerged as promising solutions, offering a range of advantages such as reduced reliance on fossil fuels, lower carbon footprint, and enhanced biodegradability. As the demand for these materials continues to grow, it becomes essential to have a comprehensive understanding of their characteristics, synthesis, performance, processing techniques, applications, and end-of-life treatment options.
This book begins with an overview that sets the stage for the subsequent chapters. It provides a concise yet informative exploration of the fundamental concepts, historical developments, and current trends in the field of bioplastics and biocomposites. By laying this foundation, we aim to ensure that readers of all backgrounds can grasp the essence of these materials and their significance in the context of sustainability.
Moving forward, the book delves into the synthesis of bioplastics and biocomposites. It presents an in-depth analysis of the various manufacturing techniques, raw materials, and processing conditions involved in their production. By understanding the intricacies of synthesis, readers can gain valuable insights into the factors influencing material properties and tailor their application-specific requirements.
Performance evaluation is another crucial aspect covered in this book. Through comprehensive discussions, readers will explore the mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties of bioplastics and biocomposites. The authors provide a comprehensive overview of the characterization methods employed to assess these materials, allowing readers to understand their behavior under different conditions and make informed decisions for specific applications.
Additionally, the book explores the processing techniques employed for shaping bioplastics and biocomposites into useful products. Whether it be extrusion, injection molding, 3D printing, or other advanced methods, readers will gain insights into the challenges, advantages, and considerations associated with each process. The authors also discuss the latest advancements and emerging technologies, providing a glimpse into the future possibilities of these materials.
The diverse applications of bioplastics and biocomposites are highlighted in a dedicated chapter, covering a wide range of industries such as packaging, automotive, construction, electronics, and more. By showcasing real-world examples and case studies, this book aims to inspire readers and encourage the adoption of these sustainable materials across various sectors.
Finally, the book addresses the crucial topic of end-of-life treatment options for bioplastics and biocomposites. Understanding how these materials can be properly disposed of or recycled is vital for achieving a circular economy and minimizing environmental impact. The authors delve into the existing technologies, challenges, and opportunities in this area, shedding light on the importance of responsible waste management.
Throughout this book, the authors have drawn from their extensive expertise and research in the field of bioplastics and biocomposites. By synergizing their knowledge and providing a comprehensive overview, they aim to equip readers with valuable insights, enabling them to navigate the intricacies of this dynamic industry.
Whether you are a scientist, engineer, entrepreneur, student, or simply an enthusiast seeking to explore the world of sustainable materials, this book will serve as an invaluable resource. We hope that it not only expands your understanding of bioplastics and biocomposites but also inspires you to contribute to the ongoing efforts towards a greener and more sustainable future.

Chapter 1 Plastics and Bioplastics Overview 1

D. Grewell

1.1 Plastics and Polymers 1

1.2 Plastics versus Polymers 2

1.3 Molecular Structures 3

1.4 Co-polymers and Blends 9

1.5 Composites 9

1.6 End-of-life of Plastics 11

      1.6.1 Recycling 11

      1.6.2 Incineration 12

      1.6.3 Degradation 12

Abbreviations 13

References 14

Chapter 2 Polymerization and Synthesis from Biobased Feedstocks 15

Michael J. Forrester, Fang-Yi Lin and Eric W. Cochran

2.1 Introduction 15

2.2 Step-growth Polymerization 16

      2.2.1 Introduction to Step-growth Polymerization 16

2.3 Biopolymer Step-growth Polymers 21

      2.3.1 Bioreplacement Polymers 21

      2.3.2 Step-growth Conclusions 27

2.4 Ionic Polymerization 29

      2.4.1 Introduction to Ionic Polymerization 29

      2.4.2 Basics and Equations of Anionic Polymerization 29

      2.4.3 Basics and Equations of Cationic Polymerization 31

      2.4.4 Common Petroleum Anionic Polymerization Products and Methods 32

      2.4.5 Common Petroleum Cationic Polymerization Products and Methods 35

      2.4.6 Anionic Polymerization of Biopolymers 35

      2.4.7 Cationic Polymerization of Biopolymers 36

      2.4.8 Ionic Polymerization of Biopolymers: Conclusions 37

2.5 Metathesis Polymerization 38

      2.5.1 Mechanism 38

      2.5.2 Catalyst Choice 39

      2.5.3 Acyclic Alkene Metathesis Polymerization 39

      2.5.4 Non-olefin-based Acyclic Metathesis Polymerization 42

      2.5.5 Ring-opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) 43

2.6 Radical Polymerization 46

      2.6.1 Free Radical Polymerization 47

      2.6.2 Controlled Radical Polymerization 48

2.7 Conclusion 58

References 58

Chapter 3 Overview of Bioplastics 63

D. Grewell

3.1 Bioplastics 63

3.2 Evaluating Bio Content 67

3.3 Regulations 69

3.4 Composites 69

Abbreviations 70

References 70

Chapter 4 Polymer Processing Principles 72

Elmar Moritzer, Volker Schoppner, Michael Kroker, Claudine Reisdorfer, Johanna Muller, Maike Engelen and David Grewell

4.1 Introduction 72

      4.1.1 Heating Thermoplastics 72

4.2 Supply Chain 74

4.3 Material Properties 75

4.4 Polymer Processing Machines 77

      4.4.1 Screw Machines 78

4.5 Cooling 83

      4.5.1 Introduction 83

      4.5.2 Calculation of the Cooling Process 83

      4.5.3 Cooling Technologies 88

4.6 Extrusion Lines 89

4.7 Injection Molding 90

      4.7.1 Introduction 90

      4.7.2 Design of Injection Molding Machines 97

Abbreviation 101

References 101

Chapter 5 Biocomposites 102

Alper Kizitas, Chad Ulven, Mitch Michel and D. Grewell

5.1 Fiber-based Composites 102

5.2 Particle-based Composites 103

5.3 Rule of Mixtures for Density 103

5.4 Theory of Composites 104

      5.4.1 Stiffness of Composites in the Longitudinal Direction 104

      5.4.2 Stiffness of Composites in the Transverse Direction 105

5.5 Biocomposites 107

5.6 Advantages and Limitations of Biocomposites 110

5.7 Applications 113

      5.7.1 Upgrading Biomass for Headlamp Housing 113

      5.7.2 Latest Breakthroughs with Sustainable Hybrid Composites in Lightweight and Semi-structural Applications 115

      5.7.3 Rice Hull-filled PP 117

      5.7.4 Cellulose Filler in Recycled Polyamide 6/Polypropylene Blends 118

Abbreviations 118

References 119

Chapter 6 Fermentation of Polyesters (PHA and PLA) 122

Melissa Montalbo-Lomboy

6.1 Introduction 122

6.2 Fermentation 124

6.2.1 Fermentation Nutritional Requirements 125

      6.3 Batch Fermentation 125

      6.4 Fed-batch Fermentation 126

      6.5 Continuous Fermentation 127

      6.6 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 128

      6.7 PHA Microorganisms 128

      6.7.1 PHA Produced Via R. eutropha 131

      6.7.2 PHA Produced Via A. latus 132

      6.7.3 PHA Produced Via Methylotrophs 133

      6.7.4 PHA Produced Via Phototrophs 133

      6.7.5 PHA Produced Via Mixed Culture 135

6.8 PHA Fermentation Strategies 136

      6.8.1 PHA Produced in Batch 136

      6.8.2 PHA Produced in Fed-batch 139

      6.8.3 PHA Produced in Continuous 143

      6.8.4 PHA Produced in Solid-state Fermentation 146

6.9 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 148

      6.9.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria 148

      6.9.2 Fungi and Yeast 150

6.10 PLA Fermentation Strategies 151

      6.10.1 PLA Produced in Batch 151

      6.10.2 PLA Produced in Fed-batch 154

      6.10.3 PLA Produced in Continuous Fermentation 155

      6.10.4 PLA Produced in Repeated Batch 155

6.11 Summary 155

Abbreviations 156

References 156

Chapter 7 Bio-based Polyesters 167

D. Grewell, Tianyi Sun, Thidarat Tosukhowong, Jed Randall and Molly Morse

7.1 Polyesters 167

7.2 Polylactic Acids 168

      7.2.1 Introduction 168

      7.2.2 Synthesis and Production 169

      7.2.3 Heat Resistance 173

      7.2.4 Brittleness and Toughness 174

      7.2.5 Controlled Hydrolysis 177

      7.2.6 Melt Strength 180

      7.2.7 Summary 180

7.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 181

      7.3.1 Production of PHAs 182

7.4 Processing and Properties of PHA 185

      7.4.1 Properties 185

      7.4.2 Processing 186

      7.4.3 PHA as a Circular Material 187

      7.4.4 Recycling 187

      7.4.5 Biodegradation 187

      7.4.6 Closed-loop Production of PHAs 189

7.5 PHA Applications 189

7.6 PHA Conclusions 190

7.7 Other Polyester 190

7.8 Introduction to PBS 191

      7.8.1 Summary 191

      7.8.2 Synthesis 192

      7.8.3 Properties 193

      7.8.4 Degradability 194

      7.8.5 Copolymers/Blends/Composites 195

      7.8.6 Processing 196

      7.8.7 Applications 197

      7.8.8 Conclusion 200

Abbreviations 200

References 201

Chapter 8 Protein-based Plastics 213

D. Grewell, J. Schrader and G. Srinivasan

8.1 Chemistry 213

8.2 Material Science 215

8.3 Engineering 217

8.4 Product Design 217

8.5 Economics 217

8.6 Applications 218

8.7 Summary 221

Abbreviations 222

References 222

Chapter 9 Starch-based Biopolymer Films 224

A. Travalini, I. Demiate and B. Lamsal

9.1 Starch and Its Molecular Structure 224

      9.1.1 Starch Molecular Structure 225

      9.1.2 Conventional Sources of Starch 230

      9.1.3 Non-conventional Sources of Starch 230

9.2 Properties of Starch Films and Their Characterization 230

      9.2.1 Film Physical Properties 231

      9.2.2 Mechanical Properties 231

      9.2.3 Thermal Properties 233

      9.2.4 Transmission and Barrier Properties 237

9.3 Formulation of Starch-based Plastics 238

      9.3.1 Plasticizers 238

9.4 Thermoplastic Starch and Its Applications 239

      9.4.1 Reinforced Starch Films and Composites 241

9.5 Processing Conditions for Thermoplastic Starch 241

      9.5.1 Casting of Starch Films 242

      9.5.2 Extrusion Systems 242

Abbreviations 242

References 243

Chapter 10 Bio-based Polymers and Resins in Paints and Coatings 249

Dean C. Webster

10.1 Introduction 249

10.2 Drying Oils 251

10.3 Alkyd Resins 252

10.4 Cellulose-derived Resins 253

10.5 Natural Resins 254

10.6 Recent Advances 254

10.7 Vegetable/Seed Oils in Coatings Cured by Autoxidation 254

10.8 Derivatives of Vegetable/Seed Oils 257

10.9 Monomers and Polymers Derived from Cellulose 260

10.10 Summary and Outlook 264

Abbreviations 264

References 265

Chapter 11 End-of-life of Plastics/Bioplastics 274

Neha Mulchandani and Ramani Narayan

11.1 Introduction 274

11.2 End-of-life Strategies 277

      11.2.1 Mechanical Recycling 277

      11.2.2 Chemical Recycling 278

11.3 Bio-based Plastics 284

      11.3.1 Understanding Bio-based 281

      11.3.2 Understanding Biodegradability 284

      11.3.3 Applications of Biodegradable, Bio-based Polymers in Agricultural Mulch Films 287

11.4 Conclusions 287

Abbreviations 287

References 287

Subject Index 291

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